نشریه نسیم خرد
سال هشتم شماره 2 (پیاپی 15، پاییز و زمستان 1401)

The meaning of the language is the main goal in linguistic inquiries. Wittgenstein had two views on language: first, he considered language as an image of the universe. That is, he considered the words not referable to sensible things as meaningless. Second, he considered the meaning of language as dependent on its function in linguistic games specific to its users. Similarly, Farabi considered language as what is in the man’s inner side and believed that the speaker’s purpose – which is used for meaning and inserted in the form of words – is the very language. In his view, meanings exist and words are contractual items among nations. This inquiry uses a descriptive-comparative approach to analyze the views of Wittgenstein and Farabi on language and meaning and show their points of difference and similarity. Farabai had two theories on words, which were consistent with Wittgenstein’s first and second views. Besides, both thinkers considered language as the main axis of philosophy and maintained that the main function of philosophy is to remove ambiguities from the language. Wittgenstein, however, would initially consider some of the propositions as meaningless, and Farabi considered meaning as existent in the universe. Wittgenstein did not accept grammar as a practical science and considered it as dependent on meaning. Farabi, however, considered grammar as an independent science in line with logics. In his view, any logic requires grammar to state its opinions and achieve the right meaning.

One of the important issues in philosophy and mysticism, with considerable ontological and epistemological effects, is explaining the truth of fact-itself (nafs al-amr). This is because the truth of fact-itself is directly related to affirmation and falsification of epistemic propositions and statements. The subject of the present inquiry is a comparative investigation of the views of Islamic philosophers and mystics regarding the truth of fact-itself in a descriptive-analytical method. The related data were gathered through library studies. The inquiry aims at a general expression and stating the common and different points among the views of most philosophers and mystics regarding the fact-itself and presenting a brief analysis on them. The most important findings of the inquiry are as follows: the mystics’ interpretations of the fact-itself are focused on the ontological sphere and are proposed for explaining the existential unity of the universe. But the philosophers’ interpretations are focused on the epistemological sphere and aim at explaining the verity and falsity of the epistemic propositions. According to this approach, some of the philosophers’ interpretations such as ‘fact and outside in particular sense’, ‘active intellect’, and ‘existence-self’, are not the precise and right interpretations of fact-itself. But, some others such as ‘general affirmation’ or ‘absolute container of affirmation of external realities’ and ‘container of rational affirmation of the facts’ are justifiable. It seems that ‘thing-itself’ (nafs al-shayʾ) is the most precise and most comprehensive interpretation that enjoys the capability to explain the verity and falsity of any epistemic proposition.

The theory of ‘possibility in the sense of need’ (imkān faqrī) is among Mulla Sadra’s innovations. Possibility in the sense of need is the very essential need of the possible beings, according to which no independence is conceivable for the effect, to the extent that the mental image of the truth of the effect is not possible without imagining its cause. Designing such a creative theory has definitely many theoretical and practical consequences that lead to alteration and evolution in upstream issues. The present study investigates the consequences of realizing the possibility in the sense of need in the monotheistic lifestyle. Of course, these consequences are divided into theoretical and practical; and the latter type is divided into individual and social. The present study pursues just the individual practical ones. The view of ‘possibility in the sense of need’ alters discussions such as self-sacrifice, removing arrogance, principality of prayer, giving up loving others and not fearing anyone other than God. In some of them, it resolves doubts and in some others, it creates a new mentality to offer a new image of the issue. For instance, the ‘possibility in the sense of need’ clarifies that praying is the necessary feature of human’s all needy existence, not a tool for accessing sensual passions. A deep belief that all creatures are completely in need of God removes fear of the greatest powers and brings about courage for performing divine obligations.

In Master Motahhari’s view, contrast is inconsistency and conflict between two beings that are at the same time together; and this contrast is directly related to the material world. The writer, in the present article, is seeking to explain the reason and the mode of contrasts, conflicts, benefits, blessings, wisdoms, and positive effects of the material world from Master Motahhari’s view. It pursues this goal in a qualitative form through a descriptive-analytical method by studying his hermeneutic writings. On the one hand, Master Motahhari maintains that the main reason for contrasts and conflicts of the material world is its existential order and its ‘having matter’ as well as the essential nature of ‘potential and possibility for this matter’, which moves continuously towards actualization and new perfection. And on the other hand, he considers these contrasts as enjoying blessings, wisdoms and positive effects, including preparing the ground for emergence of human’s free will, possibility of knowing things better, unveiling goodness and beauties and making them meaningful, perfecting the souls of divine saints, and hiding felicity inside troubles. Thus, conflicts in the world are seen, in the superficial look, as evil; and in a deeper look, they are otherworldly, good and desirable.

Philosophical explanation of religious concepts is one of the missions of Islamic philosophy. What was known as reincarnation before Mulla Sadra is just the worldly reincarnation (tanāsukh mulkī) in the sense of removal of the soul from one body and its transference into another one. For explaining some of the religious concepts, Mulla Sadra fabricated another term for incarnation: celestial reincarnation (tanāsukh malakūtī), expositing many religious discussions and mystical experiences by using it. Here, we have firstly dealt with the special foundations of Mulla Sadra’s philosophy that help us in explaining the concept of reincarnation and its various types; then, we have stated his philosophical explanation of celestial reincarnation. Afterwards, we have investigated those Quranic verses that show various types of reincarnation. Finally, we have summarized the discussions related to reincarnation in traditions.

Allameh Hassan-zada’s skill in resolving scientific disputes and reconciling the views of scientific schools in the way to achieve truth can assist us greatly in understanding and rightly interpreting the principality of existence and the meaning of conventionality of quiddity and its extension in the present time. The present article explores Allameh’s works in a descriptive-analytical way, adjust the important preliminaries in understanding the meaning of conventionality and predication of existence on quiddity, and regards two overall meaning for existence and non-existence of nature. First, predicating existence on quiddity is through medium of accidents and judging non-existence due to the rightness of its negation. Second, quiddity is non-existence in terms of relational existence, and is existent in terms of the existence of relation, i.e. the imperfect ‘to be’ (kāna nāqiṣa). Finally, we have explained the figurative existence of quiddity or its mystical judgment in Allameh Hassan-zada’s view.

In the discussion on popularization of philosophy, the term ‘philosophy’ either refers to a method of thinking or to the philosophical products extant in books. Discussion on permissibility or non-permissibility of popularization of philosophy in both senses is in the sphere of activities of the practical intellect. Some consider corruptions in popularization of philosophy, such as harming people’s piety, social order and even individuals’ mental tranquility. On the contrary, some refer to its advantages such as human’s independence in decision-makings, reduction of misusing people’s ignorance and their naivety, and reducing the costs of social changes as well as reinforcing people’s beliefs. In the new era, with the spread of communication and information devices, hiding rational products is impossible, and all people – including young people – are subject to various thoughts and beliefs. The only way for being immune from risks or reducing harms is being equipped with philosophy in both senses. If we previously could choose between popularizing philosophy and forbidding it, today we have just one way: the necessity of popularizing philosophy. Nevertheless, we know that all people have no capability to philosophize. Thus, first we must increase the ability of philosophical thinking through educating people and, then, immune weak individuals – through other methods – against the flood of right and wrong information of various media. The importance of dealing with this issue is because the promotion of any scientific discipline is along with appropriation of ample material and spiritual assets. Thus, to decide on popularizing or forbidding any discipline, including philosophy with its opponents and proponents, contemplating on its advantages and disadvantages is a necessity. The method of this writing is documentary and analytical-rational.

In transcendental philosophy, the intellect is promoted in interaction with religion and intuition. The ascend above intuition is the product of intellect and descend of those transcendental truths to the threshold of argument is the product of the growth of intellect. Both the heartfelt link with religion and infiltration of the truth of its teachings in the man’s soul are a sign of elevation of intellect, and the circuit of the waves of the sea of wisdom from the depth of one’s soul to the coasts of philosophical expression requires rational activism, which is itself another sign of growth and livelihood of the intellect. The most important ways for promotion of intellect in the light of intuition are as follows: the harmony of intellect with the immaterial world ensuing the use of intuition, the existential becoming and strengthening of the intellect due to enjoying intuition, circulation of love in all orders of the soul and its effect in the intellect’s enjoyment of the heart’s intuition. Besides, we can imagine in two forms the way the intellect is promoted in interaction with religion: (1) the effect of the religion’s truth in the man’s heart and its reflection in rational understanding, and (2) promotion of the intellect with assistance from the ontological teachings of the text of religion.

From the viewpoint of theoretical mysticism, the ultimate goal of creation is perfection of all creatures, and the most desirable way for it is known to be through the perfect man. In explaining this view, the present study uses a descriptive-analytical method to revise the anthropological foundations of the ‘perfect man’ in theoretical mysticism and conclude that the approach of this domain on the basis of these special foundations, including the dichotomy of the man’s existence, the man’s true ‘heart’ and his state of ‘godlikeness’, is a god-centered approach. The man’s special characteristic in the theoretical mysticism is enjoying the power of ‘godlikeness’. The godlike man is the perfect God-seeking man who knows God and has achieved the status of proximity to God. In the literature of theoretical mysticism, proximity to truth is called wilāyat, meaning elimination of the servant’s ‘self’ and I-ness and his achieving the status of annihilation in God as the criterion for human’s perfection. The educational way of theoretical mysticism is educating a man through a man, based on which the souls who seek sufficiency get help from the sufficient souls through heartfelt wayfaring to elevate in the path to proximity to God, create a strong link between the godly refined life (ḥayāt ṭayyiba) and reasonable life in proportion to acquiring divine names and keeping on divine attributes in their actions and words, cover the right path of servitude to God, and become godlike. Achieving godlikeness, which is a graded concept and is the origin for objective effects, is the ultimate goal for the man’s creation and his existential perfection.

The background of classification of sciences goes back to ancient Greece. Among the Greek philosophers, we may mention Aristotle whom some consider the first person who could classify sciences. He divided philosophy into theoretical and practical, and classified mathematics, natural sciences, public affairs and theology under the former, while considering the latter as including three sections: management of the house (domestic policy), management of cities (civil policy), and ethics. Muslim philosophers have divided theoretical philosophy into three sections. For them, theology is not an independent science and is among the pubic affairs. The justification and explanation of this classification, considering the fact that they have specified ‘subject’ as the criterion, is thought-provoking. The most important provision in explaining the subject is ‘essential accident’. In this study, we have used a descriptive-analytical method to state the views offered by Mohammad Reza Mozaffar and Morteza Motahhari regarding the essential accident and refer to the implications of this idea. The results are as follows: according to Mohammad Reza Mozaffar’s view of essential accident, all sciences are philosophical, but Morteza Motahhari’s view does not have such a drawback, and all propositions of sciences are in their special place.

The textbooks constitute one of the important pillars of education in any educational system and play a considerable role in the process of teaching and learning, and have always been considered by education planners. Investigating the situation of educational texts and pathology of textbooks in line with improving, completing, updating and making them efficient is among the essential and common measures taken in the educational systems. In investigation and pathology of textbooks related to logics in Qom seminary center, we may find, through a descriptive-critical method, numerous impairments that can be divided into two types: general impairments (including goals, method, content, form and appearance of the text, structure of the text, and psychological aspects) and specific impairments (including stagnation and stop in logical discussions, inattention to new logic, disagreement on the order of discussions, using unfamiliar words and terminologies, qualitative and quantitative deficiency in using examples, lack of analytical practices and questions). Here, by investigating the textbooks of logic in the educational system of Qom seminary – from the viewpoint of structural features and level of observing scientific principles in designing and compiling them on the one hand, and perceiving the direct and indirect effects of the content on various dimensions of cognitive, emotional and skill learning of the learners – we seek to assess them with educational parameters so that we may prepare the ground for rewriting them in proportion to new conditions and new needs to make the book on logics in seminary centers closer to desired conditions.

The science of epistemology, due to the goal it pursues, is of great importance, because no science is needles of it. This is due to the fact that the validity of propositions in other sciences is dependent on the value of knowing and criterion of verity, which is the most important issue in epistemology. In this article, we have stated all dimensions of this science – including its background, subject, method, problem, definition and ultimate goal – and to introduce it more, we have compared it to other related sciences such as logics, philosophy, psychology of perception, ontology of philosophy, and philosophy of science to conclude that despite similarities between those sciences and epistemology, there is no overlap between them. Besides, it was clarified that the criterion for verity of the propositions, which is the most important fruit of this science, is direct or indirect reference of what is known to the intuitive knowledge.