مجله تاملات فلسفی
پیاپی 29 (پاییز و زمستان 1401)

The rule of "miscellaneous articles in the time , complexes in the "duration" is one of the most widely used rules in Islamic philosophy, which directly or indirectly in discussions such as the relationship between the variable and the constant, the occurrence of the universe, divine knowledge, jurisprudence and Divine predestination, divine action, God's presence with the world of time, adaptation of worlds, transformation of sequence and infinite actual realization, as well as rational explanation of some religious teachings such as the simultaneous presence of the Imams on the bed of various mortals or the absence of time on the divine essence are used.Therefore, this rule plays an essential role in the intellectual system of thinkers such as Mirdamad. This rule has various interpretations have not yet been comprehensively expressed together and has provided grounds for fallacies. Leading research provides an overview of the various interpretations of this rule and some of their applications. The diversity of these interpretations is primarily due to the fact that Duration itself has three separate meanings that have only verbal commonalities with each other. Also, what is present in the universe can be a person existing in time, a status of existing statuses in time, or a superior existence in time, and ultimately the stability of the world of time can only be achieved from the perspective of fixed beings, or this Stability does not depend on the cognitive subject. According to the factors, a total of four interpretations of the rule are organized,

The mismatch between the mind and the outside is one of the challenges that many sages do not accept, and most sages may agree that what one perceives is true. Conversely, if the theory of mind-object mismatch is put forward, it may be equated with a ghost statement, while this theory can be analyzed differently in such a way that neither a ghost statement is necessary nor a sophistry arises. In this study, which is based on the library method of collecting information, analyzing it and comparing opinions, the conformity between object and mind is rejected because there is no reason for conformity, but there are narrative and empirical (intuitive) arguments for non-conformity. In connection with the inconsistency arises in the following discussion of the promise to respond to the ghost. One of the fruits of this theory is that it solves the problems that exist in revelation, dream interpretation, and the embodiment of bodily deeds and resurrection, because in these cases, different interpretations of a truth have been expressed, which if the mind and the object are compatible with each other. They are contradictory and unsolvable, but when the conformity between mind and object is removed, different interpretations of a truth can be given.

Ibn Sina emphasizes the central role of "perception" in addressing issues related to the happiness of human perception. According to him, human perceptions, including sensory, imaginary and intellectual, seek happiness commensurate with themselves. Since the state of the brain has a direct effect on the way a person perceives, this happiness is also related to the state of the brain. In the present article, by descriptive-analytical method, the effect of brain health on perception and, consequently, the effect of happiness on it is examined and analyzed. According to the findings of this study, abnormal brain conditions in three cases of nature disorders, mood disorders and brain diseases, disrupt the natural process of perception. This disorder causes the perfection of various powers and as a result, the happiness resulting from that area, including the happiness resulting from the area of the intellect, which is the highest type of happiness, is disrupted. Considering the relationship between the state of the brain, which is often beyond the scope of the individual's will and control, and the human race's attempt to achieve happiness due to perceptions, the question arises as to how the happiness of people with brain abnormalities is achieved ? Reflecting on the works of Ibn Sina, two answers can be given to this question: the first answer is an empirical answer and observes the possibility of adjusting the brain in worldly life, and the second

Farabi's cosmology is one of the dimensions of Farabi's philosophy that reflects his worldview. Farabi was the first Islamic philosopher to formulate a coherent theory of the universe, which became the model and basis for philosophical cosmology in the tradition of Islamic philosophy. Farabi's cosmology is a mixture of two Greek heritages, both philosophical and scientific, and the other is the heritage of the emerging Islamic civilization, which has been accompanied by his own innovation and initiative. By accepting the theory of issuance, Farabi rejected Aristotle's essentialist view of cosmology and, with an ontological approach, drew his own cosmology. Farabi's cosmology is a paradigm and pattern-oriented system whose origin is known and can be drawn based on the original origin of the destination, unlike the Aristotelian system which is an exploratory system and beings are discovered in the stages of research and reflection. In Farabi's cosmology, implications such as theism, system-orientation, humanism, ontological precedence over epistemology, and causal relationship can be traced. Given that no independent work has been done in the field; the present article tries to describe Farabi cosmology based on Farabi's origin, principles, innovations and initiatives, and then states the implications of Farabi cosmology.

According to materialist neo-Darwinists, life and all things related to it are merely the results of the operation of material laws, and no immaterial or transcendental factor has been involved. Therefore, in order to provide a comprehensive and ultimate explanation of living things, it is enough to know the material laws and reduce everything to these laws. Thomas Nagel, a prominent philosopher of the mind and one of the opponents of materialism, argued that the existence of life from inanimate matter was improbable, that physical laws are not self-sufficiency, that consciousness existed and that it could not be reduced to physical matters, and then natural selection theory can not explain reason. But he also critiques materialist neo-Darwinism. But it also criticizes the theistic view, arguing that it firstly creates a dilemma and explanatory gap between the mental and the physical, and secondly that it does not, as the materialists’ view, bring the explanation to an end. In contrast, he proposes the theory of panpsychism for the constitutive aspect of his view and natural teleology for its historical aspect. The purpose of this analytical-critical article is, firstly, to critique materialist neo-Darwinism using Nagel's critical views, and secondly, to argue that, based on the principle of inference of the best explanation, theism in A comparison with Nagel's materialism and the panpsychistic hypothesis is a more plausible explanation.

Contemporary world is full of religions that have different teachings and adherents. Meanwhile, there are significant differences and commonalities among divine and non-divine, theistic and non-theistic religions. Such a plurality with regarding religions’ geographical and historical spreading and their adherents’ interests to a special religious tradition, is faced us to some questions as follow: What is the relation between divine justice and religious plurality? Does religious plurality, in different times and places, is based on divine will? With regarding appearing some divine religions in the Middle East, can it indicate that divine grace and salvation was/is limited to the people of this region? And what is the duty of those people who have not heard the voice of divine religions or that religions have not properly introduced to them? For answering such questions and doing more research about the relation between divine justice and religions’ plurality, is tried to show that the requisite of divine justice is providing plural ways and paths concerning human beings’ guidance that sending divine Prophets in the form of divine religions are as its’ clear samples. Also, prior to sending Prophets, the most significant path for guiding human beings is relying on internal Prophets that human being’s intellect and innate indicate this aspect. In addition, as human beings live in different cultural, spatial and temporal circumstances, logical requisite of their divine guidance is plurality of guiding’s methods and their justly participation of the divine grace of truth and salvation.

In Rhetorics, Aristotle introduced fear and pity as selfish and altruistic emotions that resulted in the unfortunate suffering caused by the unexpected occurrence of devastating calamities in the past or future for a good human being like us and better. These emotions occur in tragedy, which is the imitation of actions and life, in the same circumstances as described for life in Rhetorics. In tragedy, according to Aristotle, in Poetics, the arousal of fear and pity in the audience moderates these emotions and thus purifies them. This arousal of emotions is the result of the ignorance of the average virtuous character of the tragedy about the nature of his voluntary action during the plot of the tragedy, which is the result of the urgency of depriving the external goods and leads him to behavior in which the moral middle ground is not observed. This research seeks to answer the questions that Aristotle considers in the Poetics: First, how does moderating the selfish and altruistic aspects of the emotions of fear and pity satisfy the moral aspect of tragedy? Second, how do these emotions find a moral aspect by linking the arousal of fear and pity in the audience of tragedy and the character's ignorance of the nature of his actions? And thirdly, what is the relationship between the special character traits and the plot and the moral aspects of the emotions of fear and pity in tragedy?

The subject of teaching ethics is one of the fundamental and important issues of ethical knowledge. How the teacher treats students has important implications for well-being and educational issues. Ragheb Isfahani, the author of Al-Dari'ah al-Makarem al-Shari'ah, is one of the Muslim thinkers who has paid attention to the moral duties of the teacher in the course of the educational and moral issues of this book. Although the general structure of Ragheb Esfahani's moral theory in this book has been influenced by Greek philosophers, but its general content is religious and Qur'anic, in which philosophical and Qur'anic ethics are mixed. Since Ghazali's statements about teaching ethics in the Mizan-alamlal are influenced by Ragheb Isfahani's expressions, it can be acknowledged that there are similarities between these two books. Ragheb Esfahani in Al-Dari'ah talks about five duties for the teacher, but Ghazali talks about eight duties. Compassion, indirect deterrence, being a factor in speech and behavior, setting an example for the Prophet (PBUH) and addressing the learners according to their level of understanding, are among the most important tasks that both Ragheb Isfahani and Ghazali, but Ghazali from within, Some of these tasks take on other implications and provide a broader explanation of teaching ethics.

Geographical orientations are one of the important cognitive tools of human beings that in their literal meaning refer to relations between physical objects in the natural world. Encompassing-encompassed orientation refers to a relation between two object that external boundary of the encompassed object corresponds to internal boundary of the encompassing object. This orientation has been used in everyday language as well as in the philosophical systems to conceptualize philosophical principles and rules. With acceptance of literal meaning of this orientation in physics, Mulla Sadra uses widely this for description and explanation of philosophical concepts in metaphysics. Using the of encompassing-encompassed orientation to describe abstract concepts is made possible by conceptual metaphors. Conceptual metaphors related to this orientation in Mulla Sadra's philosophy are: " having perfect knowledge as encompassing", "having active knowledge as encompassing", " being perfect cause as encompassing", "being basic as encompassing", " Maximum attribution to an adjective as encompassing", " exercising power and will as encompassing". Although at first glance, the container-content orientation is equal with the encompassing-encompassed orientation, but they have completely different metaphorical functions. " Knowledge as container" and " time as container" metaphors can be seen in Mulla Sadra's philosophy

The conflict between the necessity of existence, the essential self-sufficiency and immutability of God with absolute knowledge and God's attention to his servants, and finally God's affection are among the issues that have been seriously considered by philosophers and theologians. Given that in contemporary philosophy of emotion, emotion as a cognitive process requires awareness and evaluation, its use is considered part of the existential perfection of beings and every conscious being is necessarily in interaction with other beings and is emotional. Classical theist emphasize that God is unaffected and therefore impassible. Passible God was considered a new orthodox theory in twentieth-century theology. Neoclassical theist believed that impassibility had no roots in the Bible. She saw a conflict between impassibility and divine love, because God's sympathy is a sign of his love for his servants.This article focuses on Christian theology and tries to evaluate and analyze the solution of these schools in overcoming this challenge by explaining and applying the theories of classical and neoclassical theists in the face of the mentioned conflict. It seems that according to the cognitive-value definition of emotions, the new analysis of science, time, absolute God and variability, one can approach an explanation of God in which the mentioned attributes are somehow compatible with each other.Key words: passibility. empathy. emotion. classical theist. neoclassical theist

Salvation has always been considered as an important matter by most religions and the thought schools. Plato as an original philosopher, meditated on it. The result of his thought about salvation has been investigated in this essay. Thus, it had been found out that salvation and philosophy have a strong relation in Plato’s philosophy. Their relation has to do with the role of reason in his philosophy. Reason according to him, is a part of soul which makes us human beings and also could finally make us divine creatures. It means that human being, according to Plato, could free himself or herself from the cycle of rebirth with the help of reason and thus become a mortal living thing. In the other words, living things, according to Plato, are of two types: immortal and mortal. An immortal living thing is a winged soul patrolling all of heaven. When the soul sheds its wings, and wanders until it lights on something solid, where it settles and takes on an earthly body and makes it move, then it becomes a mortal living thing (human being). Therefore, whenever human being could come back to the heaven, he or she would be saved from the cycle of rebirth. However, salvation is only the result of life as a philosopher.

Human cerebral organoids are biological organs that are cultured in laboratory dishes and can mimic the human brain. One of the main issues in this area is about the moral status of these creatures. Where is the moral status of cerebral organoids in the ethical hierarchy, and to what extent can researchers use them for their experiments? The discussion of the moral status of organoids is connected to the discussion of their consciousness. The main question of this article is whether phenomenal consciousness can guarantee the moral status of these beings or not? We will answer that mere phenomenal consciousness cannot determine the moral status of a being. In addition, conditions such as to possess a certain morally relevant characteristic, structural resemblance to the fetal brain, or being in the network of significant and appropriate relationships, which are cited as conditions for the moral status of cerebral organoids, they ultimately have nothing more than to consider phenomenal consciousness as a sufficient condition for having a moral status for a creature. Therefore, these conditions cannot be a good guide to determine an ethical framework for the use of cerebral organoids. Ultimately, the goal of this study is to show that the condition of having phenomenal consciousness cannot guarantee an efficient moral frame for human cerebral organoids, and that we need more than just phenomenal consciousness.

Some objections to the mental existence that are proposed by the western philosophers are still unknown to Muslim philosophers. For example, Husserl’s complicated mathematical formulae objection says that no man can imagine e.g. polygons with several million sides. So, there is no mental existence for the complicated. Although imagining the complicated, in its general sense, in mind has not been argued as a philosophical problem by Muslim thinkers, sometimes some of them have proposed some similar issues and said that we are of the synoptic knowledge (al–‘ilm al–ijmālī) about them. The first resolution to suggest, on the basis of the well-known principles of Muslim Philosophy, especially of Avicennian Philosophy, too is the very synoptic knowledge. But, can the synoptic knowledge and/or its reconstruction be a worthy response to the complicated? The synoptic knowledge itself can be interpreted in two different ways: (1) actual uncompounded knowledge – that is unconscious; (2) potential knowledge. We will argue that (1) cannot be accepted eventually. Thus, we will refute unconscious knowledge absolutely – either unconscious knowledge of Muslim philosophers or that of such western philosophers as Leibniz – by means of several proofs. But (2) is acceptable by itself. So, we will show that such a knowledge sometimes can be found in us and also such things as the scientific art can be analyzed by means of the very potential knowledge. Finally, we will investigate the very acceptable potential synoptic knowledge how much can be applicable in the case of the complicated formulae objection.

In the history of Islamic thoughts, Kalām specialists mostly believed in temporal coming-into-being of the universe, and on the other side, Islamic philosophers mostly believed in temporal eternity of it. But in contrast, “Mulla Sadra” as an Islamic philosopher, on the basis of the “renewing creation” based on the “substantial motion”, believed in temporal coming-into-being of the universe in every moment; but meanwhile, he rejects the temporal finitism. In this paper, after reconsidering the concepts of “temporal coming-into-being” and “temporal finitude” of the universe, I criticize the most important arguments against the temporal finitism, using the framework of Mulla Sadra’s transcendent philosophy. So I show that one can accept Mulla Sadra’s philosophical framework and his “renewing creation”, but reject his arguments against temporal finitism. Finally, I argue that not only there is no contradiction between transcendent philosophy and temporal finitism, but also this framework helps a lot for a coherent and valid explanation of both the temporal coming-into-being of the universe and the temporal finitude of it. Accordingly, I have introduced a new picture for temporal coming-into-being, in which the universe has both temporal beginning and renewing creation. One could call this theory "The temporally finite renewing universe". This model in addition to enjoying the benefits of the fruitful framework of transcendent philosophy, helps to solve some of the interdisciplinary problems and possible conflicts.