مجله مرتع
سال شانزدهم شماره 4 (پیاپی 64، زمستان 1401)

Mining activities lead to the degradation of rangeland ecosystem structures and functions. Coal mining in rangelands generates substantial quantities of waste dumps, which serve as the primary environmental pollutants in the area and its surrounding ecosystems. Vegetation restoration in these mining areas can help reduce soil pollution and contribute to the overall landscape restoration. The aim of this study was to assess the physical and chemical properties of abandoned coal wastes in the rangelands of Kiasar, Mazandaran province, Iran. This information can be utilized to promote vegetation restoration on coal mine wastes by identifying the factors that limit plant growth and establishment on such substrates.

This study was conducted at the Kiasar coal mine in Sari, Mazandaran province, Iran. The mine site was established in 1983. The area is located at an elevation of 1030 m above sea level, with an average rainfall of 520 mm and a mean temperature of 13.2°C. A total of 10 coal waste dumps were abandoned in the area over the last three decades. Six age classes were identified based on the time since abandonment of these waste dumps in the surrounding area of the mine site. The identification process involved the assistance of experienced engineers and local workers. The age classes were categorized as follows: 4-6, 8-12, 15-18, 19-21, 22-24, and 25-27 years since abandonment. The control site consisted of natural rangelands around the mine, which are currently used for livestock grazing. Waste and soil samples were collected using a random-systematic method from a depth of 0-20 cm. The samples were then placed in plastic bags for subsequent chemical analysis. The soil samples were air-dried at room temperature, and various parameters, including texture, moisture, pH, EC, OC, CaCO3, N, P, K, Cu, Fe, Cd, Ni, and Pb, were measured in the laboratory. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA, and means were compared using Duncan multiple tests.

The analysis of variance indicated that all measured parameters of soil and coal, except nitrogen and potassium, exhibited statistically significant differences among the coal wastes and the nearby rangelands. The coal wastes had lower percentages of silt, clay, moisture, and lime compared to those in the surrounding rangelands. However, these properties did not show significant differences among the various abandoned coal wastes. Most of the abandoned wastes were characterized as neutral or alkaline, with an electrical conductivity (EC) less than 1.5 dS/m. An exception was found in the waste that was abandoned 22-24 years ago, which exhibited acidic pH

In conclusion, our study revealed that moisture availability is a crucial limiting factor for plant growth on coal wastes. This limitation can be attributed to the sandy and sandy-loamy texture, unstable slope of coal dumps, and high porosity of the substrate. Moreover, coal waste undergoing erosion and leaching exhibited high electrical conductivity (EC) and low pH levels. The levels of organic matter and available phosphorus were found to be insufficient for supporting optimal plant growth. However, the concentrations of heavy metals remained within the normal range, even after a significant period since the abandonment of coal wastes. We recommend the implementation of remediation treatments in similar restoration projects to enhance plant growth and establishment.

In Iran, the economic and social dependency of pastoralists on pasture fodder has intensified due to population growth among pastoral communities. Rangeland managers are concerned about the imbalance between livestock and available pastures. In response, decision-makers have sought to alleviate pressure on rangelands by promoting alternative livelihoods and implementing multiple-use projects. However, the successful implementation of multiple-use projects in Golestan and Azadshahr provinces has faced challenges, even after five years of project review service announcements. This study aims to investigate the reasons for the non-acceptance of multiple-use projects in the rangelands of Azadshahr and Gonbad.

The study was conducted in three stages: discovery, evaluation and analysis, and the development of the final structure. Various ecological, economic, and social indicators were used to assess the acceptance of multiple-use projects among rangeland users. Data were collected through questionnaires and interviews, and the reasons for non-acceptance were compared using pairwise comparisons on the Likert scale. The selection of representatives was based on the reputation approach and targeted sampling, considering criteria such as work history, experience, and literacy level. Hierarchical analysis was performed using Expert Choice 11, and judgments on the acceptance or rejection of given ranks were made based on pairwise comparisons and compatibility rates.

The results indicated that economic, political-institutional, and environmental criteria were the primary factors contributing to the non-acceptance of multiple-use projects. Insufficient economic stability, lack of job security, inappropriate timing and location of project implementation, and inadequate government support were cited as some of the key indicators. Respondents also highlighted top-down management approaches and a lack of attention to user participation in decision-making and planning as significant issues.

Overall, the findings suggest that pastoralists have a low acceptance of multi-purpose plans, indicating the failure of planners and decision-makers to effectively engage stakeholders in these projects. It is recommended to enhance participation at various levels of decision-making, planning, and implementation. This can be achieved through increased training programs and the establishment of non-governmental organizations, fostering greater user involvement in future projects.

Several factors contribute to negative changes in the quality and quantity of pastures, leading to soil and vegetation degradation, reduced farmers' income, destructive floods, migration of villagers and nomads to urban areas, and rural poverty. One significant factor among these is rangeland management. Recognizing the importance of effective rangeland management, this research aims to analyze the factors influencing rangeland management in Kermanshah province.

This study adopts a descriptive-analytical research approach. The statistical population comprises managers and experts from the General Directorate of Natural Resources and Watershed Management of Kermanshah province. A sample of 31 individuals was randomly selected, and questionnaires were administered to them. Ultimately, 28 completed questionnaires were returned. The data collection tool was a questionnaire designed based on field research and individual interviews with experts and managers of the General Directorate of Natural Resources and Watershed Management of Kermanshah province. The questionnaire consisted of two parts: the first part collected personal characteristics of respondents, including gender, age, education level, occupation, number of households, and income. The second part focused on pasture management and utilized a five-level Likert scale. Structural equation modeling was employed for data analysis. The questionnaire's formal and content validity were confirmed through the input of professors from Razi University of Kermanshah and subject matter experts, with necessary revisions made in multiple stages. Reliability of the measurement tool was assessed using Cronbach's alpha method.

The results revealed that among the five factors affecting pasture management, rules and regulations explained the highest proportion of variation, while man-made problems contributed the least. The average variance extracted (AVE) for the planning index was 0.766, man-made problems index was 0.711, rules and regulations index was 0.799, individual skill index was 0.526, and monitoring index was 0.626, indicating convergent validity. The combined reliability (CR) coefficient for the planning index was 0.755, man-made problems index was 0.737, rules and regulations index was 0.802, individual skill index was 0.514, and monitoring index was 0.526, indicating adequate reliability. Indirect effects on rangeland management were found to be most significant for multi-level program goals, inappropriate exploitation practices by farmers, unprincipled and unscientific agricultural methods, improper plowing techniques, inadequate mechanization, lack of deterrence and implementation guarantees in rangeland evaluation laws, and insufficient comprehensive management supervision throughout the cycle. Conversely, variables such as managers' low acceptance of planning and people's lack of knowledge and awareness regarding proper pasture use had the least impact.

The results highlight the importance of planning indicators (0.30), man-made problems (0.18), rules and regulations (0.66), individual skill (0.46), and supervision (0.22) in explaining factor loadings. Effective policies and management measures need to be designed to steer pasture conditions towards improvement. Achieving this objective requires a deep understanding of how managers make decisions, plan, and implement strategies.

Rangelands and forest lands are crucial components of natural resources, and their preservation is essential for the survival of human societies. The improper use of land can lead to the devaluation and destruction of these resources, resulting in a decrease in the income of users. Hence, sustainable development and optimal use of natural resources are necessary for future generations. This study aims to develop an optimal utilization model that considers income maximization in rangelands in North Khorasan province.

The study was conducted in Dasht rangelands of Garmeh city in North Khorasan province. The required information was collected through face-to-face interviews with beneficiaries, and several representative beneficiaries were selected based on their available capital. The optimal combination of income sources for each representative was determined using a linear programming model. The planning model used in this study was a linear programming model that considered three decision variables related to the share allocated to each utilization (livestock grazing, apiculture, and medicinal plant breeding). The restrictions included capital, labor, and water. The goal was to maximize the household's net income. The model was solved using LINDO software, and linear programming patterns were implemented for all representative beneficiaries of Dasht rangelands.

The optimal patterns of utilization showed an increase in apiculture activity and a decrease in livestock grazing compared to the current patterns used by the representative beneficiaries. The efficiency of the optimal model increased by a significant percentage compared to the current model for all representative beneficiaries. The results indicated that apiculture activity provided the highest profit for all representative beneficiaries.

The study concluded that optimal utilization of rangelands and its optimization are crucial for income maximization. The results showed that apiculture activity should be considered as a significant income source. The study highlights the importance of sustainable development and optimal use of natural resources without damaging them for future generations.

One of the important steps in assessing rangeland vegetation is determining the sample size. Adequacy of sample size and its determination is always one of the main concerns of rangeland vegetation analyzer. There are two general methods for determining the sample size in rangeland science: graphic and statistical methods. In this study, the sample size required studying the percentage of vegetation and soil in under grazing and enclosure area, in addition to the Cochran method, the analysis of power and effect size has also been used.

This study was conducted on the habitat of Ammodendron persicum in the rangelands of Zirkouh, South Khorasan province. For sampling, initial sampling was performed with 3 transects and 30 plots of 16 m2. In each plot, the percentage of vegetation was estimated; also 18 samples were taken from the soil depth of 0-30 cm. In this study, in order to perform pre-test and post-test power analysis (80% and 60%) in both groups, parametric and non-parametric statistical tests were performed. For this purpose, to compare the percentage of vegetation and sand in the two areas (under grazing and enclosure), if the data is normal, independent samples t-test and if isn't normal, Wilcoxon test were used. The normality of the data was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test and the homogeneity of the variances was assessed using the ratio of variance test. In this study, based on the Cochran's formula, the number of plots required for sampling was determined. To determine the sample size, and the validity of the test from the initial data, power analysis and effect size statistics were used. All statistical tests were performed by R software and psych, lsr, pwr and effectsize packages. 

The results showed that, despite the absence of outliers, vegetation data did not have a normal distribution. Even after the second root conversion, the results of the Shapiro-Wilk normality test still showed that the data in this study was not normal. Therefore, in this study, non-parametric tests were used. The results showed that about 502 plots are needed to measure vegetation by the Cochran method. The Cohen effect size for the student's t test with independent samples was calculated to be about 0.23, which is a small difference between the percentages of vegetation between the two areas. The results of the present study showed that 30 pre-test samples at the levels of 0.01 and 0.05 with test power of 4.31% and 13.95%, respectively, and type II errors in the test were 95.69% and 86.05%, respectively. It indicates that the test power for this number of samples is really low. At the power level of 60% and 80%, with an "average" effect size between 46 to 73 plots for each region was calculated and the number seemed more economical. The results of the soil sampling power analysis showed that the test power was 27.21% and 52.04% at the level of 0.01 and 0.05, respectively, and type II the errors in the test were 72.79% and 47.96%, respectively.

  Finally, it can be said that at least 46 plots and 22 soil samples were required to study this rangeland to an acceptable level. It is suggested that if the null hypothesis is rejected, in addition to the P value, the effect size and test power be reported. According to the results of this study, in this region, the statistical test of the t-test on 30 vegetation samples had an error of about 86 to 96%. Therefore, in areas with high vegetation changes, the use of the Cochrane method and 30 plots is not recommended at all.

Fire as a frequent phenomenon in rangelands and because of its complicated and different effects on natural ecosystems, has great importance. Awareness of such fire effects on vegetation cover in point of rangeland management after fire is important and helps better Understanding and sustainable management of rangelands. Changing in plant structure and composition and site  situations is on of the most clear effects of fire on natural ecosystems especially in arid and semi-arid areas. Fire effects on soil seed bank is a fundamental subject in ecology and phytosociology. These seeds have a vital role in maintenance and reclamation of deteriorated rangelands and also in plant composition improvement in plant communities. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of fire on vegetation and soil seed bank in Sarkhalaj rangelands of Kangavar (middle Zagros).

In current research, one year after the fire, in two areas of the control (Grazing exclosure) and fire, percentage of canopy cover and soil seed bank were sampled on transects with a systematic-random approach. Soil was sampled on these transects in two depths of 0-5 cm and 5-10 cm. After greenhouse cultivation, germinated seeds were identified and the composition and density of soil seed bank were determined. In order to comparing of biodiversity, we used species richness index, species diversity index (Shannon- Wischmeier) And evenness index (Pielou). Also similarity index (Jacard) between ground and underground vegetation cover in exclosure and fire area using formula. Mean comparison of biodiversity indices performed by LSD test. Also, biodiversity indices calculation of plant communities based on two viewpoints: ground and soil seed bank plant composition was done andsignificancy of differences of functions of biodiversity of ground and soil seed bank under treatments (fire and control area) compared via T-test. Raunkiaer life-form system was used to Plant categorizing.

The results of this study indicated that after one year fire the diversity, richness and evenness indexes were significantly reduced. Assessment of soil seed bank in depth of 0 – 5 cm showed that fire decreased the diversity and species richness indexes. However, it did not significantly affect the evenness index. Moreover, in depth of 5-10 cm fire had no significant effect on diversity indexes. Plants life form classification changed after fire and Cryptophytes  and Hemicryptophytes species decreased 8% and 6 %, respectively which resulted in domination of annuals in plant composition. Also, seed amounts decreased greatly in soil surface layer (0-5 cm.).

Overall, considering the results of this study, it could be said that by changing the site conditions, both in terms of the space required for the establishment of new species and by changing the soil properties, the fire has caused a change in the composition and diversity of species and finally the life form of existing species in the area.

Satellite images and remote sensing technology are recognized as efficient and modern tools for extracting information related to earth sciences, which make it possible to evaluate and monitor ecosystems at a lower cost than field methods. One of the most important methods of extracting information from satellite data is various image classification techniques. The present study was conducted in order to evaluate the capability of Classification Tree Analysis and Decision Forest algorithms on Sentinel 2 satellite images as well as a visual interpretation of Google Earth images to separate and classify plant ecological units in one of the semi-steppe rangelands of Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province.

In order to distinguish plant ecological units (homogeneous units of vegetation), the visual interpretation method was first used, which included determining polygons on the image and then defining homogeneous areas with similar characteristics in order to identify the dominant type and surface cover of the land. Then, the characteristics of each polygon were interpreted based on the dominant species and the type of disturbances and a general classification was done. After separating the plant ecological units and separating the approximate boundaries of the units, vegetation sampling was done according to the peak growth time of the plant species. After determining the vegetation cover and its production, the average percentage of the estimated vegetation cover in each ecological unit was calculated. For this purpose, first, the dominant plant species of each specific unit and then its accompanying species were determined on the condition of having 50% or more coverage of the previous species. Finally, the identified plant ecological units were named based on the dominant species and by physiognomic and floristic methods and expressed in the form of descriptive statistics. In this study, in addition to the visual interpretation method, Classification Tree Analysis and Decision Forest algorithms were also used to generate a vegetation map. For this purpose, multispectral images of the MSI Sentinel 2 sensor were used as the main processing source. In the next stage, ground control samples were taken randomly from each group of plant ecological units as a model for the spectral characteristics of the classes. Then, the samples were separated into training and experimental datasets, in such a way that a part was divided for classification (one-third of the samples) and another part was divided to estimate the accuracy of the results of the mentioned classification algorithms (two-thirds of the samples). In order to extract information as best as possible, auxiliary layers such as digital elevation model, principal component analysis, and plant indices such as NDVI along with spectral data were used in the classification process. Then the algorithms were classified in Idrisi TerrSet software. In this way, maps of plant ecological units related to the studied area were obtained. In order to evaluate the accuracy of the classification results, the resulting maps were checked with the registered ground reality points. Then, the error matrix related to each method was generated by the software, and finally, the extracted statistics were evaluated and compared.

The results of visual interpretation showed that finally 7 types of plant ecological units were identified that were different in terms of structural features, including Astragalus verus, Bromus tomentellus, Scariola orientalis, Astragalus verus-Bromus tomentellus, Astragalus verus-Stipa hohenikeriana, Bromus tomentellus- Stipa hohenikeriana and Stipa hohenikeriana. The results obtained from the Classification Tree Analysis algorithm showed that the ecological unit Astragalus verus-Stipa hohenikeriana with %0.99 and the ecological unit Bromus tomentellus with %0.90 have the highest and lowest producer accuracy, respectively. While the highest user accuracy is related to the ecological unit Astragalus verus with %0.99 and the lowest value belongs to the ecological unit Stipa hohenikeriana with %0.85. On the other hand, the results of the Decision Forest algorithm indicate producer accuracy and user accuracy above %0.95 in all plant ecological units. So that the ecological unit Astragalus verus and Astragalus verus-Stipa hohenikeriana with %100 and the ecological unit Bromus tomentellus with %0.95 have the highest and lowest producer accuracy, respectively. While the highest user accuracy is related to the ecological unit Astragalus verus-Bromus tomentellus with %100 and the lowest value belongs to the ecological unit Bromus tomentellus-Stipa hohenikeriana with %0.97. The results also show that the overall accuracy and kappa coefficient for the Classification Tree Analysis algorithm is %0.94 and 0.92, respectively, and for the Decision Forest algorithm is %0.99 and 0.97.

According to the obtained results, it can be stated that the Decision Forest algorithm has a higher capability in using spectral information for the classification of plant ecological units in comparison with the Classification Tree Analysis algorithm and led to more accurate results. Also, the integration of the auxiliary bands obtained from the original images along with the raw bands can provide the most valuable information for the identification of plant ecological units. The results of the present research also indicate that if multispectral satellite images with appropriate resolution are not available, using Google Earth images due to their ease of access and their free availability is very suitable and affordable for the preparation of thematic maps such as land cover. It is economical and the map produced from it can be used as a ground reality.

Biological control of erosion in sloping lands and recognizing the effects of plant species, which are used for rangeland improvement, is the most effective and sustainable method for stabilizing and controlling soil fertility in rangeland.Variations of plants composition cause extensive changes in the soil so that in the short term return to the original state is limited .The interactions of plant species on soil have been studied in various research.Tree species with creating litter, have positive effects on physical and chemical properties of soil, and their loss due to various factors leads to a decrease in soil quality characteristics. The aim of this study is investigation the effects of plant species  planted to improve and rehabilitation slope lands on recovering of soil characteristics of Kakhk watershed.

Kakhk watershed with 37.2 Km2 area in northeastern of Iran is located between 58° 31ʹ 12ʺ to 58° 37ʹ 08ʺ E longitude and 34° 02ʹ 13ʺ to 34° 05ʹ 04ʺ N latitude. The average annual rainfall of the basin is 243 mm. The project of improving and rehabilitating the destroyed lands and pastures in this watershed including sub-projects of planting fruit tree and non-fruit trees, shrub planting, range seeding, seeding, and mount culture Which started in 1993 and has continued until 2006. Slope, direction of slope, altitude, and geology maps of the basin was prepared with GIS software and by overlying them homogeneous work unit maps was obtained.Sampling sites were selected under similar condition of geology and topography. Soil sampling was done randomly and systematically from 0-30 and 30-60 cm depth of understory soil of Prunus amygdalus, Pinus eldarica, Rhus Coriaria and bare area (control treatment). soil texture by hydrometric method, amount of organic matter by Valky block method, pH of saturated soil extract with pH meter, electrical conductivity of saturated soil extract with EC meter, total nitrogen by Kjeldahl method, absorbable phosphorus by Olsen method, lime, potassium, and Bicarbonate of soil samples was measured in soil science laboratory. One-way analysis of variance was used to compare between several independent groups.Also, the comparison of means and differences between groups was investigated using LSD and Dunnett t3 test.

The highest percentage of Nitrogen (0.054), Potassium (270 mg/kg), Phosphorus (6.6 mg/kg), and the percentage of organic matter (0.96) were observed in understory soil of R.coriaria and the highest percentage of lime (7.91) was observed in P. eldarica understory soil. Their lowest values were 0.017, 96.33, 1.92, 0.3, and 2.87, respectively, in the soil of control area. The analysis of variance results showed that there was no significant difference at the level of 5% between the amount of acidity, salinity in all soil depth, and bicarbonate in depth of 30-60 and 0-60 centimeters of soil in different treatments. The percent of sand, silt, and clay also have a significant difference at the level of 5% between treatments in total soil depth (0-60 cm). The average amount of Nitrogen and organic matter of control area in depth of 0-30 cm have a significant difference at a 5% level with P. Amygdalus, P. Eldarica, R. Coriaria treatments. There are a significant difference at a 5% level between the average of potassium (137.67 mg/kg), organic matter (0.55 %), and lime (8.04 %) in understory soil (0-30cm) of P. Eldarica treatment with R.Coriaria region (278.67 mg/kg, 1.07 % and 4.38% respectively) and only in term of lime have a significant difference with P. Amygdalus treatment. The mean of phosphorus (6.26 mg/kg) and organic matter (0.84%) in P.Amygdalus treatment are significantly different from the control area (1.82 mg/kg and 0.32% respectively) but not significantly different with P.Eldarica and R. Coriaria. The soil of 0 to 30 cm depth in the R.Coriaria cultivation area was the most different from the control area in terms of studied chemical parameters. The average amount of Nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, organic matter and silt  of control area in depthes of 30 to 60 cm showed a significant difference at 5% level with P. Amygdalus, R. Coriaria treatments. Soil pH and EC in none of the treatments and studied depths did not show a significant difference with the soil in the control area at the level of 5%.

The results of this research showed the planting of different trees species in Kakhk watershed has been causes changes in some physical and chemical properties of soil.The R. Coriaria and P. Amyigdalus species more than P. Eldarica provide soil fertility by increasing the minerals Such potassium, nitrogen, phosphorus and organic matter in the their understory soil without significant increasing unhelpful indicators such as salinity. Since Rh.coriaria has better ability for establish and growth in the slopping lands, so it can be used as a suitable species to repairing and rehabilitation of destroyed mountain pastures in Gonabad County.

A large area of Iran rangelands is located in arid and semi-arid areas which a significant percentage of them have been degraded and are not in good condition. In these areas, vegetation restoration is not easy due to the water scarcity. Water harvesting operations are among the necessary management measures to restore and develop the rangelands of these areas. Water harvesting operations improve the rangeland restoration conditions by increasing the available moisture for plants. But not all water harvesting operations are equally effective and may not have the same effect on rangeland restoration in different areas. Therefore, it is necessary to compare such operations in different areas to be able to choose the best water harvesting operations. Therefore, this study investigates the efficiency of two water harvesting methods in the rehabilitation of arid vegetation in Hormozgan province.

In this study, three treatments have been considered: control area, area under microcatchment operation and area under water spreading system. Systematic-random sampling method was used to measure vegetation. Three 100 m transects were laid out in each area. Vegetation attributes were measured in ten 2×2 m plots located along each transect. In total 90 plots, the percentage of canopy cover and the number of the plant species were recorded. The biological form of plant species was determined based on the Rankier classification method. In addition, the percentage of rocks and pebbles, litter and bare soil were determined in each plot. To study the flora of the study area, all plant species in the region were sampled and identified using reliable references. To evaluate species composition in all three sites, plant functional types were used. One-way analysis of variance followed by LSD were used to compare control area, area under microcatchment operation and area under water spreading system in terms of vegetation attributes. The rate of vegetation attributes change was also determined. Detrended correspondence analysis was used to investigate the relationship between plant species and water harvesting operations and control areas.

The results showed that there was a significant differences between water harvesting operations and control areas in terms of bare soil, litter and vegetation (P <0.05) The water spreading system and microcatchment operation had a significant effect on vegetation canopy and litter cover in the region (P <0.05). Examination of plant functional types also showed that palatability classes II and hemicryptophytes had more chance to develop under water harvesting operations respectively. In terms of life form, water harvesting operations had the most positive effect on forbs and grasses, respectively (P <0.05). The results also showed that the families Poaceae, Chenopodiaceae and Fabaceae were successful families in the sites under water harvesting operations, especially the sites under water spreading system. The rate of vegetation attributes change was increasing in the area under water spreading system compared to the area under microcatchment operation, except for the bare soil. The highest and lowest positive changes belonged to litter and Simpson index with a mean of 9.07±0.62 and 0.48±0.25, respectively. The results of DCA showed that Cenchrus pennisetiformis،، ‏Tephrosia persica، ‏Atriplex leucoclada‏ ، ‏Cornulaca monacantha‏ ,‎ ‎Cynodon dactylon were the most important species related to water spreading system and microcatchment operation.

Both water spreading system and microcatchment operations improved the quality and quantity of vegetation in the region, but the effects of water spreading system were greater than microcatchment operation in restoring vegetation. According to the ecological indicators considered in this study, water spreading system is recommended to restore vegetation in arid and semi-arid regions. In the end, it is suggested that economic and social indicators such as the cost of implementing various water harvesting operations should be also considered in future studies, to combine all ecological, economic and social indicators to suggest the best water harvesting operations for rangeland restoration.

Because of climate change, a Large part of the country's lands and waters are becoming saline, so it is very important to know the ecological aspects of halophyte species in the exploitation of water resources and saline lands. Salicornia spp. are annual coastal herbaceous plants and grow in colonies in salt marshes and seashores, especially in the mouths of rivers and waterways. Salicornia has a wide variety and distribution in many parts of the world, especially in Iran. Kal Shore River in the south of North Khorasan province is one of the areas where Salicornia plant grows with a spotted distribution pattern, and it has received less attention in scientific sources. This research was conducted in 2018 with the aim of investigating the ecology of the natural environment and the growth status of Salicornia in this region.

The studied area located about 35 km east of Esfrain, along 5 km from the edge of Kal Shore river, which according to Dumarten's climate classification is part of dry areas with an average rainfall of 186 mm and average, minimum and maximum temperatures of 15.4-17.6 and 42.3 degrees Celsius, the average relative humidity is 46% and the average evaporation and transpiration is 2400 mm. The measured components include determining associated species, water and soil salinity changes during the growing season, physical and chemical analysis of water and soil during the flowering stage of salicornia, recording the phenology stages of salicornia, determining the amount of absorption of elements and the quality of fodder, and measuring production. Wet and dry mass in one square meter plot was at the time of salicornia flowering.

Result :

According to the meteorological statistics, the amount of precipitation in the area of ​​Kal Shore in the year leading to the time of the study is 318 mm, which is twice the long-term average, and this condition has a positive effect on the establishment and growth of Salicornia. Based on the analysis, the soil sample of Salicornia habitat has silty loam texture, pH 7.7, chlorine, calcium, magnesium, and sodium levels are 1812, 54, 256, and 1550 meq/l, SAR 124, and salinity level, EC 84 to 175 dS/m. The salinity of Kal Shore water varies from the beginning of Salicornia germination (18 dS/m) to the ripening stage (110 dS/m) and has an increasing trend. The germination of Salicornia in the region is in late March, flowering is in late August to September, full ripening in November, seed shedding continues until December, and its growth period is about 8-9 months. Average dry matter was 2.8 and wet matter was 11.5 kg per square meter. The accompanying species of Salicornia are mainly bushes Halocnemum strobilaceum and Tamarix sp. Based on the dry matter analysis at the time of flowering, the average amount of elements in the plant sample is nitrogen 1%, phosphorus 0.15%, potassium 0.7%, magnesium 0.67%, calcium 0.42%, sodium 10.64%. , chlorine is 21.3% and in terms of fodder quality, crude fat is 1.55%, protein is 6.28%, and ash is 60.5%.

Based on this study, Kal Shore Esfrain in the northeast of the country is introduced as one of the growing areas of Salicornia. The results showed that Salicornia can complete the phenological stages in very high water and soil salinity conditions and have a good biomass. Due to its high ash content, Salicornia fodder is limited for animal feeding and should be combined with other sources of fodder in animal feeding rations.From the point of view of protection and environment, in areas where it is not possible for other species to establish and grow in terms of high salinity, the role of Salicornia is very important in the stability and balance of the growth environment and carbon deposition by creating suitable vegetation and absorbing elements.

The conditions in which an individual or society is under tension due to social, economic, and environmental changes are called vulnerability. Vulnerability of rangeland beneficiaries and subsequent poverty of beneficiaries has caused unsustainable operation of rangelands. On the other hand, the degree pf vulnerability of rangeland beneficiaries in areas with more rainfall restrictions and its side socio-economic influencing factors is not completely known. The purpose of this research is to evaluate the level of socio-economic vulnerability of the rangeland beneficiaries in the dry region of Yazd province and to examine the convergence of beneficiaries' and experts' opinions on their influencing factors.

The study area of this research is the pastures located in the Yazd-Ardakan Plain and the local communities that benefit from it. The research tool in this study was a researcher-made questionnaire that was completed by 97 farmers and local experts in the pasture sector (n=97). In this research, in order to measure the degree of socio-economic vulnerability, the formula proposed by Me-Bar and Valdez was used and to check the convergence of the opinions of experts and beneficiaries in two dimensions of social and economic, Mann-Whitney and Independent t-Student statistical tests were used using SPSS software.

The results of the research showed that among the social factors, the parameter of the demographic characteristics of the beneficiaries with a value of 17.46 has the greatest impact on the level of vulnerability. Among the economic parameters, the parameter of providing support inputs with a value of 17.80 showed the greatest impact on reducing the level of vulnerability. The degree of socio-economic vulnerability of the beneficiaries of this study was calculated as 7.19, which indicates a high degree of vulnerability of pasture land users. The results of the convergence of opinions showed that there is a significant difference between the opinions of experts and users in the field of economic parameters affecting vulnerability. The area of ​​the rangeland and the limitation of the customary system were recognized as the most important parameters of the difference between the two groups in the economic dimension. Also, the results showed that the most agreement between the opinions of experts and operators is related to the parameters of livestock insurance and other productive parts of the pasture, incomes outside the exploitation of the pasture. In the social dimension, no significant difference was found between the opinions of experts and beneficiaries. Separately, in the social dimension, the parameter of access to resources and easy access to information became significant and was introduced as the parameter that the two groups had the most disagreement on in terms of impact on vulnerability.

According to the earned results, solutions such as supporting farmers in crisis situations, cash and non-cash investments in the restoration and exploitation of pastures, teaching the correct way of exploitation in line with sustainable livelihood It is suggested to plan to increase the agreement between the beneficiaries and increase their participation in the field of revitalization and proper exploitation of the pastures in order to reduce the vulnerability of the pastures. The results of the convergence of the opinions of beneficiaries and experts showed that the mentality of beneficiaries and experts on economic factors affecting vulnerability is different. The important result of this research is to reveal the need to improve the knowledge of government officials about parameters that harm the livelihood of pasture beneficiaries in areas with dry geography. Also, the development of pastures requires a review of the economic factors that reduce the damage to the livelihood of local beneficiaries.

Fire affects quantitative and qualitative indicators by changing stable plant communities, changing genetic diversity and reducing plant and animal species and the succession and steps are effective. The severe effects of fires on the reduction of soil protection, production and changes in plants palatability, animal breeding conditions, challenges in the livelihoods of farmers, disturbance in ecosystem cycles, and on a large scale the impact on climate change, add to the sensitivity of the issue. Therefore, wildfire in natural areas is an ecological and economic risk and has profound effects on vegetation and soil and economic production of the country. So, it seems necessary to know the effects of fire, which is the purpose of writing this article.

To conduct this study, Veysian site with an average height of 1580 meters above sea level and an average annual rainfall of 470 mm was selected. Then, 200-meter transects with four numbers and a distance of 100 meters from each other and 10 squares of one square meter fixed on each of them formed the sample units in each field. This sample unit was executed exactly in a similar and homogeneous arena in its immediate area, which is protected from fire and is called the control area, with the same quality. This site was burned for the second time in 2011 and 2016, and it was surveyed in 2018 and 2019. In this site, 80 plots of one square meter each year and finally 160 plots were studied in two years and in two areas of control and treatment. After sampling, the data were normalized and analyzed using T-TEST and ANOVA in the SPSS version 22 software environment and comparing the average data using the DUNCAN method.

In this research, the general comparison of the control and treatment areas in all sites shows that there is a significant difference between the control and fire treatments at the level of 1%. In other words, the fire has been able to create major changes in terms of quantitative and qualitative indicators in the sites. The fire has obviously increased the forbs relatively compared to the grasses due to the overall decrease in canopy cover and production. The dominant species in this vegetative form is the annual species Coronilla scorpoioides (L.) Koch, which prevailed over other species after the fire. Also, the fire caused the reduction of the condition rangeland from average to poor and the trend of the status from +22 points in the control to +1 in the fire treatment. According to the annual increase of rainfall from 356 mm in the first year to 778 mm in the second year, data shows that the amount control area of production has increased from 1276 to 1454 kg per hectare (178 kg), while the burned area has decreased by 2 kg.

Covering the soil surface and its quality is one of the most important factors for soil health protection and reducing erosion and preventing of splash erosion. Fire resistance is different in different species in a vegetative form. Plant species whose seeds are more easily moved by the wind are more successful in reestablishing in the burned zone and this point is independent of their vegetative form. In this research, fire is like preparing the field for planting plants, so reviving fire fields with high-quality species is a necessity. Considering that the fire destroyed the positive aspects of the soil and vegetation and the management of burnt areas is very specialized and sensitive. Therefore, according to the existing conditions, it is not recommended to create a fire either intentionally or accidentally in this vegetation area of Iran.

Access to real information and data on the impact of watershed management projects and their technical and economic evaluation is possible through representative and paired catchments. Since management operations and topographic characteristics have a great impact on carbon retention in ecosystems, this study aimed to determine the amount of soil organic carbon due to changes in some topographic factors including altitude, direction, and different percentages of slope and measurement and zoning of soil organic carbon before biological and mechanical watershed management operation.

For this purpose, 27 land units in a part of the rangelands of sample sub-basin with an area of 25 hectares were selected as the study area. soil samples were collected from plots with dimensions of 10 * 10 m2 per unit. Composite samples consisting of 5 soil samples were collected from the center and four corners of the mentioned plots from a depth of 0-10, Soil samples were analyzed for some soil properties; including, organic carbon, organic matter, texture, bulk density, electrical conductivity, and pH.. SAS v9.1 software was used for statistical analysis. After performing normality tests, homogeneity of variance was obtained by ANOVA analysis test. Then, Pearson correlation coefficient and linear regression analysis were used to evaluate the correlation and determine the relationship between independent and dependent variables (organic carbon) then, the evaluation of spatial changes of soil organic carbon and zoning map were investigated using the geostatistical method after testing the normality of the data, interpolation methods were used and the effective parameters were optimized. Finally, using the statistical criteria of Mean Absolute Error (MAE) and Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) the amount of deviation of the actual data was measured with the estimated data and the best method for interpolation of soil organic carbon was determined.

The results showed no significant changes of soil organic carbon in response to physiographic parameters. However, soil organic matter and organic carbon was significantly influenced by different aspects (p≤0.05). The maximum (8.46 and 55/87 t/ha) and minimum (0.9 and 22/77t/ha) organic carbon and soil organic matter were observed in north-facing and south-facing slope, respectively. Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between soil OC and organic matter and negative correlation with Ph. In order to interpolate soil OC, geostatistical and Classical statistics methods were compared considering RMSE and MAE values following by optimization procedure. The results showed geostatistical methods have lower error and higher accuracy comparing to Classical statistics methods. In summary, simple Co-kriging with organic carbon as auxiliary variable is the most appropriate one for soil organic carbon interpolation in the study area. The results indicate poor spatial distribution and low carbon sequestration in the region due to the degradation of rangelands. The exploitation and overgrazing of livestock is one of the main factors of low carbon storage potential in this basin

The results of statistical analysis in this study show that the soil organic carbon of the region is not affected by the physiographic parameters of the basin, but changes in the amount of organic carbon and soil organic matter were significant compared to changes in slope direction.. Changes in the organic carbon of the area in the slope directions are affected by changes in vegetation and soil depth. Decreased vegetation on the southern slope means the reduced entry of organic carbon into the soil. However, the highest level of organic carbon in the topsoil in the northern slope of the region is estimated at 8.46 tons/hectare, which can be said that the Gonbad watershed is generally poor in terms of organic carbon.

Ecotourism in addition to creating employment and increasing income prevents the outflow of human and material capital from rural areas; which, of course, has positive and negative effects. Then, according many limitations and problems in the study area, including the lack of effective employment opportunities, high unemployment and low incomes, the study of socio-economic effects of ecotourism as the most important dimension of the effects of ecotourism can take an effective step in solving these problems. So, the purpose of this study is to investigate the direct and indirect positive or negative socio-economic and environmental effects of ecotourism on local communities.

The study area is a mountainous watershed, called Balade-Nour, located in the Mazandaran Province, Nour city and in 55 kilometers from the main road of Haraz (Amol-Tehran). The summer grazing lands rangelands of this area are based on communally-council ownership. The research method is based on descriptive-analytical method. Survey data is collected from the sample heads of households and the Islamic Council of the villages. The pre-test questionnaire was used and the reliability coefficient (Cronbach's alpha) was calculated. The content validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by consulting professors and experts. The main variables were determined and the final questionnaires were completed by 214 people of local communities and 9 villages by random sampling method. In these questionnaires, various variables were examined, including socio-economic characteristics of the pastoralists, technical characteristics of the rangelands and other related questions affecting the empowerment of local communities using path way analysis method. Path analysis method is commonly used in investigating the direct and indirect effects of independent variables on the dependent variable. In order to investigate the relationships between the latent variables of the research on each other, the structural equation modeling method has been used.

The results showed that the highest frequency (49.2%) of stakeholders had 50-75 years old. Most respondents (81.8%) had undergraduate degree (ill educated and illetrate). The lowest frequency (0.5%) belonged to people with master's degree or higher. Independent variables explained about 69% of the total variance of ecotourism effects. The sum of direct and indirect effects of social (0.43) and economic (0.37) indicators were the most influential positive factors on the evaluation of ecotourism effects, respectively. Then, work experience, income, and environmental factors had a negative impact on local communities, respectively. Therefore, the social factor as the most important and influential variable of the structural model of analysis both in terms of quantity and in terms of paths of influence reflects the good feeling of the local community about the arrival of tourists and the formation of social connections between people. In addition, have a good effect on the economic situation of the region, especially solving the problem of seasonal unemployment. Hence the social effects and consequently the positive effects that ecotourism has on the livelihood diversity of local communities is so effective that it increases the participation and social cohesion of individuals to work together for the benefit of ecotourism.

According to the results, social index are the main necessary factor causes empowerment the local communities of the studied region. Improving the quality of life, increasing public awareness of the value of rangelands, increasing familiarity with social rights and interest in ancient cultures and traditions, more village fame, encourage and develop people's cultural and social participation, disseminate and strengthen indigenous and local culture, reduce migration, creating opportunities for rural women to work in side jobs, familiarity of tourists and local people with different types of cultural tourism are operational and scientific solutions to encourage ranchers to provide more participation.