نشریه پژوهش های فلسفی
پیاپی 46 (بهار 1403)

This article revolves around Kierkegaard's arguments about love. Kierkegaard is a pioneer existentialism and one of the main theologians of the 19th century. Love is one of the fundamental concepts of Kierkegaard's thinking, as he dedicated one of his significant books entitled Works of Love (1847) to this concept. In this book, Kierkegaard has created a constellation of concepts related to love and has proposed a new interpretation of the Christian love. Then, he designs new concepts through separating divine love from erotic love. In modern times, love is considered a category of emotions and feelings, but for Kierkegaard it has different connotations. For him, love is a philosophical, existential and fundamental concept. He considers Christian love to be the only true love and believes that in the holy scripture, true love has found meaning in relation to God. In this article, we are going to outline Kierkegaard's opinions about divine love and love for the other and delineate the relationship between the two, while criticizing and evaluating them.

One of the important ethical concepts that has occupied the minds of many philosophers in the past years is the concept of "moral certainty". This means whether there are moral propositions that are so certain that no doubt or argument or evidence can face them. According to some philosophers, for example, the statement "the wrongness of killing innocent people" brings us such moral certainty. Among the philosophers who have written in this field, two basic readings of Nigel Pleasants and Michael Kober can be mentioned. Pleasant considers moral certainty to be an absolute and natural concept that is the basis of our moral judgments, and on the other hand, Kober considers moral certainty to be a relative concept and believes that our certainties are rooted in linguistic society, culture and time. In this article, we try to address the different dimensions of the concept of "moral certainty" and the importance of its application in two different and important readings.

According to the proof-theoretic definition of the concept of logical consequence, the sentence X is a logical consequence of the set of assumptions Γ if there is an argument from Γ for X. Tarski argues that by adding any number of rules to inferential systems, there are always cases in which a sentence is intuitively the logical consequence of a set of sentences, whereas in that system it is not possible to provide an argument for that sentence. Hence, the proof-theoretic definition cannot express the intuitive concept of logical consequence. The present article examines Tarski's critique of proof-theoretic definition. Based on our study, Tarski's critique poses a serious problem to the proof-theoretic definition, but this does not mean that the model-theoretic definition is superior to proof-theoretic definition, because there are also acceptable critiques of model-theoretic definition. It seems that neither of these approaches succeed in providing an accurate definition of the intuitive concept of logical consequence for deductive systems. However, in different deductive systems, an interpretation of each of these two approaches can be presented in a way that it is consistent with other metaphysical and epistemological perspectives related to that system, and it is acceptable according to the practical goals.

Culture is one of the great themes of Bloch and Dawkins’ philosophy. They use ideas of materialism and processtual evolutionism with reduction approach to explain the cultural realm. These common aspects make a comparative/ synthetic study of their philosophy of culture- based on components “Ideas” and “Memes”- possible. The claims of this article are: 1) Bloch's processtual ontology is a proper metaphysics for Dawkins' genetics and theory of culture; 2) Dawkins' genetics explains the relation between the human biological sphere and social/historical structures. This article tries to show that the analysis of the cultural theories in Bloch and Dawkins' thought can provide genuine and profound insight into the fundamental dynamics of society and history and can more clearly explain some philosophical conceptions, for example “alienation” and “social class”. On the other side, two pair's conceptions- mainly “praxis/expanded phenotype” and “mems/plus ultra”- are complementary and can more exactly explain the relation between gene, social structures, and culture. The result of this comparative/synthetic analysis of culture are: 1) A type of philosophical “determinism” that is challenging for some basic Bloch's conceptions: utopia and hope; 2) An example -by adding the Bloch's conception of “teleology” to Dawkins' genetics- of compromising the scientific and philosophical exceptional approach.

The purpose of the current research is to analyze the researches on the use of virtual reality in teaching and learning based on the concepts of post-phenomenology. To achieve this goal, a descriptive-analytical method has been used. Emphasizing on the most important concepts of post-phenomenology, articles on the use of virtual reality in education and learning between 2017 and 2022 were analyzed. The findings of the research in the field of virtual reality mediation in relation to the learner and the learning environment showed that among the relationships described in post-phenomenology, most of them are related to background and immersion and hermeneutic relationship, embodiment and alterity are in the next ranks. In the field of multiple applications of virtual reality technology, in the order of teaching, interaction, evaluation and motivation, it has been considered in the conducted researches. In the field of incremental structures of technology (what technology gives us), interaction and immersion, motivation, deep learning and participation can be dominant in researches, and in the field of decreasing structures of technology (what technology takes from us) in researches Such as high cost, insufficient reality, human communication, high cognitive load and losses for human health have been considered. Finally, it was suggested; so that the way of changing the experience and perception of the learners during the application of virtual reality in education and learning is investigated more closely, so that the dimensions and hidden angles of the technology are revealed for the policy makers and educational technology designers. On the other hand, it can be said that the results of this practice can help improve the quality of technology-based learning.

John Hare interprets the moral gap according to Kant's teachings that is in practical reason and between moral will and human desire. He considers the first step to bridge this gap with the help of two categorical imperative: general law and the end in itself. The categorical imperative requires us to obey moral laws, because if it were not within our power, we would not be commanded to do so. So, we have to choose a rule that we can consider as a general law and act according to it; then we should be able to put humanity as our goal and prioritize other people's goals and objectives over our own desires; However, despite the evil that is inherent in humans, preferring our happiness over the happiness of others is dangerous. Using these rules leads to an internal revolution that is not possible except with divine assistance. That is, one should believe that there is a supreme good that if a person prefers the happiness of others to his own happiness and leads a virtuous life, he will be given a happiness commensurate with his virtue.

In his works, Kant distinguished between natural and moral man, and he drew a deep gap between natural man and moral man. To fill this gap, he has resorted to cultural man, and he has also pointed out how culture and civilization have developed throughout history. For Kant, culture plays the role of a bridge that establishes a link between the natural state and the moral state. The cultural situation in which mankind is located, while it is the achievement of human agency throughout history, it is the result of conflict in nature. The conflict mechanically drives human beings forward. Therefore, according to Kant, the growth and development of culture and civilization is, on the one hand, an acquisitive and subjective matter, and on the other hand, it is a genetic and objective matter. Now the question is, how compatible are these two approaches and how much does each of them contribute to the development of culture and civilization? To answer this question, we show with a critical method that nature and man have a contradictory nature in creating culture. In addition, the contribution of man in the development of culture is small compared to the contribution of nature.

To examine Putnam's views on the application of quantum logic is the aim of this paper. Hilary Putnam defends quantum logic in his works. According to him, classical logic cannot answer the problems arising in quantum mechanics. Therefore, we need to present a non-classical logic, namely quantum logic. Putnam argues three main reasons for the transition from classical logic to quantum: I. to be false some of the necessary truths of logic, II. have to change of logic, III. the pattern of three-valued logic. Putnam's views about this transition to quantum logic can be considered from several points: First, despite Putnam's criticism of classical logic, he defends quantum logic through the rules of classical logic. Second, it is a bulky claim to know of quantum logic as “true” logic. Third, the conclusions of the Cartesian product have changed in Putnam's analysis. Fourth, in his logic system, Putnam pays attention to “intuition” instead of relying on “axioms.” Fifth, the middle value of truth is ineffective and erroneous in quantum logic. Despite these criticisms, many of them can be answered analytically.

In the tradition of Western political philosophy, there are two general views on the nature of power, which can be called transcendental and immanent approaches. Sovereignty or transcendental power is applied from above and gives power an essential existence and reality which is the source of legitimacy. Governmentality or immanent power is applied from below and at the micro-level of social and political structures and rejects any kind of transcendental origin for power. Historically, Hobbes is the main representative of the first approach, and Foucault is the representative of the second approach to power. According to Agamben, both of these approaches are incomplete and one-dimensional and are unable to present a coherent theory about power. Agamben tries to link these levels again in a general theory. We want to show that, according to Agamben's belief, firstly, the transcendental and immanent dimensions, are two complementary poles of a single structure. And secondly, to show how Agamben seeks the root of this two-dimensional structure of power in Christian theology and considers the paradigms of political theology and economic theology as the roots of the theories of sovereignty and Governmentality, respectively.

In "Truth by Analysis: Games, Names, and Philosophy," Colin McGinn seeks to revitalize the traditional approach to conceptual analysis. He asserts that the definition of a concept involves specifying necessary and sufficient conditions for its application, a task he deems achievable. In pursuit of this goal, McGinn critiques opposing perspectives, including that of Wittgenstein. He explores various ways to define the concept of game, and at his best, he relies on Bernard Suits' definition. This paper argues that McGinn's attempts fall short and affirms the significance of Wittgenstein's insight. It critiques all definitions put forth by McGinn, particularly that of Suits, presenting counterexamples to challenge them. Furthermore, the paper uncovers deeper misconceptions underlying these criticisms: McGinn expects family resemblance to serve as both the necessary and sufficient conditions for applying a concept and perceives it as a theory explaining how concepts refer to their extensions, contrasting with Wittgenstein, who does not aim to develop a theory and does not propose family resemblance as a sufficient condition for a concept's application.

Concept of sublime has a long record. The record refers usually to ancient Greece but in modern time emerged a challenge, That sublime debated under aesthetics. Kant debated the sublime in his philosophy under aesthetics too. Imagination has special importance in discussion of the sublime. This discussion has other aspects in Kant's philosophy that we must regard to them. In critique of pure reason, imagination participates with understanding and sense, consequently in current interpretations Kant's work is epistemology; it provides conditions of possibility of objectivity in first critique. But in Critique of the Power of Judgment, imagination has a free operation in test judgment, it is in a free harmony with understanding. In theory of the sublime, imagination has relation with reason here feeling of the sublime is similar to morel feeling. Thus it reveals the unity of total determination of man. Therefore we understand the nature as exhibition of supersensible.

The importance of recognizing the type of attribution between the knower and the known is determining the position of knowledge in the worldview approach and its epistemological function. The main question of this research is: What is the meaning and function of the type of attribution between the knower and the known with the evolution in the philosophical principles? According to the originality of nature, the type of this attribution is the categorical attribution, assuming the duality of the two sides of the attribution, causes problems such as the validity of knowledge, the distinction between the knower and the known, and the problems of mental existence. According to the originality of the existence of gradational oneness, the type of this attribution is the illuminative attribution. In this type of attribution, the knowledge of knower, in a longitudinal and gradational relationship, becomes the cause of the creation of known, and finally according to the originality of the existence of personal oneness, the unity between the knower and the known can be stated and the type of attribution is qāyúmi attribution. The findings of the research show that according to the three philosophical journeys, by passing from multiplicity to unity, the gradational aspect gives its position to unity between the knower and the known, until in the third journey, the presence and intuition of the knower appears in the mirror of his manifestations.

"Nihilism" in Nietzsche's speech became a Philosophical problem. He called "nihilism", as "the meaninglessness of everything", criticizing the history of the western metaphysics, he considered Platonism and Christian ethics values to be the most important factors in the emergence of nihilism. Finally, with the creation of "superman" and on the basis of the same "humanist metaphysics", he sought to overcome nihilism. But Heidegger studied "nihilism" not in terms of values, but from an ontological point of view. By criticizing the whole western metaphysical thought, he considered "metaphysics" to indicate a kind of relationship with Being in which Being itself sinks behind a curtain of veils into the abyss of oblivion and neglect. In an ontological explanation, he considers "nihilism" to be equivalent to this "neglect and forgetfulness of Being" and on this basis, he introduces "the history of Western thought" as "the history of nihilism development". From this point of view, with the perfection of metaphysics, more perfect manifestations of nihilism are also realized. As far as today, in the "Technological Enframing" which is the final form of metaphysics, "technological nihilism" has determined the world and man in a nihilistic form, in the mood of ordering as standing-reserve. According to Heidegger, in facing this situation, we have no more than two options, either to submit to a complete destruction or to find a way to overcome it.

The Banshees of Inisherin by Martin McDonagh (1970- ) is black tragicomedy film. In this film, despite representation of the first fantastic scenes of the film, suddenly, all those beautiful images of the island turn into darkness and misery. Relied on the thoughts of Hannah Arendt (1906-1976), the political philosopher of the 20th century, this research tries to show why, despite all the initial beauties, in the end we see fire, war, death, immigration and misery and dissatisfaction. In this article, the focus of the discussion is based on three basic concepts in Arendt's book The Human Condition: labor, work and action. In the end, it is tried to show that it is the lack of the concept of action that causes all the darkness, bitterness and misery at the end of the film. In fact, this article tries to show that the desired trinity in the human world in Arendt's human condition must be realized together and side by side. Because the absence of action or ignoring and not understanding its ontological position causes the misery of the human world.

This question what human truth is? And what components it has, is expressed and answered in Uthulujiyya. Therefore, in this research, we want to examine the place of human in the arc of descent and the arc of ascent and answer these questions: how does human have a hierarchy in the arc of descent and ascension, and what does hierarchy in the arc of descent, and what are the ways to return in the ascending arc? The author of Uthulujiyya introduces thinking Soul as the truth of man and examines the encounter of a rational and thinking man with existence in the material world as well as the world of intellects, and it explains the purpose of the creation of the soul in the material world in the cycle of the arc of descent and ascension. He presents the three stages of human's intellectual, spiritual and sensual descent and introduces ways such as meditation and spiritual effort to purify the soul in order to return to the original position. the arc of descent into the system of grace and illuminations is from top to bottom, and the soul of human is one of its hierarchies, and the soul of human takes the way of return and ascent.

Since Vattimo's interpretation of Nietzsche requires examining the views of Heidegger and Dilthey as his main points, Therefore, in this article, we intend to first mention Heidegger's interpretation of Nietzsche, as the last metaphysical philosopher of the West, in which Heidegger to justify his goal; which is a re-evaluation of the history and experience of the West, deals with Nietzsche's interpretation. Then, briefly, we discuss Dilthey's interpretation of Nietzsche, as a philosopher of life, in which the closeness of Heidegger's and Nietzsche's thinking is emphasized. In the end, by explaining Vatimo's interpretation of Heidegger's Nietzsche, we show that, contrary to Heidegger's opinion, by examining Nietzsche's interpretation of modern nihilism and its connection with postmodern nihilism, he calls him the first postmodern philosopher. And it shows that it is Nietzsche who should be read as the first postmodern philosopher, not Heidegger, and the reason for these different perceptions and interpretations presented by Nietzsche, itself expresses the sensitive position of Nietzsche's philosophy at the end of metaphysics

Stoicism was an outstanding one among the Hellenistic schools, and have had a great influence on Greek and Roman life. Among its teachings the so called conatus (self-preservation) specially has been asserted as the first command of every thing’s nature: the first instinct and the first desire of every living creature is an effort for preserving itself in accordance with nature. Thus, the virtual life for a man is a life according to nature. The so-called suicide, on the other hand, has been an act of frequency among Stoic philosophers: a considerable number of them committed a voluntarily death. Is this inconsistent with their so-call conatus? Though they sought to avoid Platonic dualism between the sensible and the intellectual, nevertheless they accepted that the logos was the true-self of man and nature, and human reason was immortal for them. They condemn any kind of suicide, as well rejecting the passion-rooted seeking of saving life for any price. According to the Stoics, the death of an ideal wise is the same as conformity to nature and reason, whether it happens so-called “naturally” or of her/his own free will; because for such a person, will, nature and reason are compatible with each other. But since they have not considered anyone, not even their leaders, as an example of absolute wisdom, in fact, no suicide attempt can be considered entirely approved by them. Readiness for death among the Stoics must be seen as a foundation of calm and active life in individual and social life recommended by them: calm spiritually, active practically.

Religion has different aspects and dimensions including doctrinal, moral, empirical, mythical-narrative, ritual, social, and material ones. Religious experience is one of the dimensions of religion and is a significant religious fact and aspect that has diverse relations with other dimensions of religion. Hence, recognizing the kind of religious experience’s relations with religion’s dimensions has its special significance. So the question of research is what relations can be conceivable between religious experience and the dimensions of religion? To answer such a question, first, we should pay attention to the importance of different tendencies toward religion and religious experiences, that is, our understanding of religious experience defines its relation with religion’s dimensions. Our understanding of religion, also, is significant in determining its essence and diverse aspects or dimensions. In this case, considering two important religious traditions of the world, namely classic monotheism and atheism, we can notice the significance of the Transcendent Being or Sacredness/Divine aspect of religion, and think of some dimensions of religion such as doctrinal, moral, mythical-narrative, empirical, social, ritual or material that each one has its special relation with religious experience, although creedal and ritual ones can be more respectable. In this case, it seems the doctrinal dimension can make or interpret religious experiences, ritual and worshiping dimention shows and manifests its symbolic repeatation. Mythical-narrative one can transfer virtues of religious experiences to the next generations, moral one can make and extend the results of religious experiences, and material one can manifest externally and make the background for the next religious experiences. In the meantime, paying attention to noticeable theories such as essentialism and structuralism about religious experiences, and dividing them into two nouminous and intuitive-theoretical experiences, can make complicated and plural of their relations with some dimensions of religion.

For Heidegger Dasein as thrown projecting temporalize it's own being. Selfhood Dasein existing against is neutral to any apriori determination and as such it is ungraspable for any representation to assume an ideal self. On the other hand Dasein as disclosing is opened to future and through this openness it is the site of pure difference. For Heidegger the essential openness to difference is as primordial as occurring from the horizon of future and for the sake of itself. This existential for the sake of as the constitution of every average goal made possible by the fact that Dasein in its being is delivered to itself and there is no representational normativity to guarantee the life as a whole. Due to this the basic determination of an authentic self is being in accordance with the logic of neutral self namely difference. We will put it in the article self-transformation and argue that this basic determination of authenticity is made possible through being anxiety for being-in-the-world as such. This is what we will call Eudaimonia. We call the way of relating to the world through anxiety, Dasein's eudaimonia, and consider it the basis of selfhood. Selfhood as eudaimonia requires Dasein to acquire its inherent power for its self-transformation and align with the logic of its inherent realm, which is the place of absolute emergence of the difference of existence from beings. This conformity is the relation of the self to the realm of the self or the being-there of self.

The exploration of laughter’s philosophical significance within the realm of performing arts, particularly the French classical theatre of the seventeenth century, reveals a profound connection to the comedic genre. This literary form, characterized by its gentle yet satirical nature, aims to critique and amend the behavioral and societal flaws of individuals. It often portrays a protagonist whose moral attributes and actions defy societal norms, depicted on stage in an exaggerated manner, amplified and interwoven with theatrical techniques such as verbal wit, comedic behavior, and the humorous repetition of scenarios. Through this lens, comedic dialogue not only elicits laughter but also conveys an ethical message, emerging from the critique of society’s distasteful customs and pervasive misconceptions. The comic and humorous approach offers a fresh, conciliatory perspective on life, contrasting the somber, oppressive reality presented in tragedy, thus serving as a potent vehicle for engaging diverse social groups. This study briefly touches upon the history and evolution of the laughter element, or the comedic genre, within French literature of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It delves into the critical issue and examines the techniques and performances that induce laughter in The Miser, extending the discussion to encompass the philosophy of laughter.

In this article, we want to think about the concept of desire in the philosophy of Deleuze and Guattari, and through it, to understand Deleuze's ontology of the concept of "event". In formulating the concept of "desire", they are looking for an answer to the problem of the chaotic world of contemporary man. A world where for its resilience contemporary man seeks refuge in all kinds of ways of escape. Deleuze and Guattari create a new conceptual system centered on the concept of "desire" in order to answer the why of this situation and draw ways to avoid it. In this text, we tried to analyze the concept of desire from their point of view in connection with the concept of "Apparatus" by Foucault-Agamben and Finally, we should approach a new understanding of the concept of the event as its escape from the relativistic postmodern challenge. An understanding that Deleuze included in the concept of "life power" in his last writing and in this context, he offers us a strange and yet familiar view of "life".

Although Aristotle is the first philosopher who separates theoretical and practical wisdom from each other, but before Aristotle, Plato also paid attention to the separation or non - separation of theoria and praxis. According to Plato, the virtue is knowledge; That is, self - knowledge is the same virtue and arete of a person. Therefore, in Plato's philosophy, it can be said that theoria and praxis are not separate from each other. At the same time, Plato believes that if we want to become virtuous by will and intention, we must resort to philosophy; That is, philosophy is considered as praxis to provide a certain theoria and purpose. Therefore, it can be said that Plato proposed the separation of theoria from praxis. Now, according to this introduction, important issue arises: Are theoria and praxis separate from each other in Plato's philosophy? This article tries to examine the above question from the viewpoint of Martin Heidegger and Hans - Georg Gadamer. While Heidegger believes that Plato by proposing the separation of theoria from praxis and also the precedence of theoria over praxis, has provided the ground for the formation of metaphysics and as a result the forgetting of Being, Gadamer believes that in Plato's philosophy, theoria and praxis are not separate from each other. In Gadamer's view, many of Plato's doctrines such as the doctrine of ideas, the ideal state, etc., have derived from his practical considerations.

According to Martin Heidegger, the work of art reveals the truth. But this is not in every work of art, but only in a real art! But which work has the possibility of accepting the title of a real art? Heidegger himself has mentioned some of these works. But how can a criterion be extracted from The Origin of the Work of Art? A criterion that can assess whether the work has the ability to approach what Heidegger calls a work of art? Can this criterion be applied to artistic mediums, other than what Heidegger himself discussed? Medium like cinema? In this research, we have tried to provide a criterion for evaluating the film; The terms of this criterion are: non-representation, non-abstraction from everydayness and non-belonging. In the continuation of the research, just to reveal the proposed criterion, the movie The Wind Will Carry Us directed by Abbas Kiarostami was discussed and the criterion terms were evaluated for that movie. This film satisfies the terms of criterion. Based on this, it can be said that based on Heidegger's thought, a criterion can be obtained regarding artistic medium such as cinema.

Since its establishment and formation by the advanced philosophers, especially Hakim Abu Nasr Farabi, Islamic philosophy has experienced various changes, one of which is "change of location" which is usually accompanied by content changes; For example, philosophy in the Baghdad period has characteristics that change into other characteristics in the Khorasan period. In the same way, Islamic philosophy in the territory of Azerbaijan (6th to 8th lunar centuries) has other coordinates, one of which is the noticeable tendency of the writers of philosophical texts in Persian language. Today, in the shadow of this desire and interest in the Persian writing of the philosophers of that era and country, we have a legacy of valuable research works, which both in terms of strengthening the Persian language and in terms of using the capacity of that language in conveying philosophical concepts and issues, are part of the precious treasures of our intellectual culture. Are considered The present research has been organized based on the library method and the following findings are the result of this research and investigation: 1- The Persian writing of philosophers of the Azerbaijani school is focused on the existence of the capabilities of this language in transmitting intellectual concepts; 2- The authors of treatises and philosophical books in Persian, along with the use of Arabic language, sought to benefit the general public from intellectual knowledge; 3- Preservation of national identity with a component called Persian language is another motivation of the authors of philosophical works in Persian language.

The present study examines the weaknesses of teaching Islamic philosophy at the undergraduate level of universities. In this article, focusing on the book Nahayeh al-Hikma, topics of ontology, anthropology, epistemology and theology have been expressed. Repetition of the contents, failure to state the materials and results of the discussions, failure to address new philosophical and scientific issues and doubts, failure to follow the logical order of the discussions, and failure to understand the educational goals are among the problems and shortcomings of this course. For field evaluation, a questionnaire was prepared and after its standardization was verified, it was completed by students, graduates and professors of the field of Islamic philosophy of universities across the country and subjected to systematic analysis (SPSS and SWOT). According to the results, Islamic philosophy education is weak in the long-standing explanation of philosophical topics, the reasons and whys of discussions, avoiding logical fallacies, especially the sharing of words, confusion of concepts and examples, and the accessories and results of philosophical principles. The results of the questionnaire data show the weakness in the course content, teaching styles and teaching methods, and in the end, suggestions are made to improve the current situation.

Gilles Deleuze in the "Logic of Sensation" that is a reading of the paintings of Francis Bacon, explicitly criticize the narration. But in fact he criticizes figurative and representational narration, and highlight an alternative narration that exist in the work of Bacon. Our problem in this article is this alternative narration, not in the works of Bacon but in the work of Deleuze himself, in this book. I think Deleuze have a very interesting narrative attitude in this book, he is a theater director. Through elimination of all the figurative and representational narrative elements, Deleuze receive two elements: scene and figure. Empty scene and isolated figure in the scene. We adhere to these two element in the whole of our narration and reveal changeable relations between these two element, changeable relations that operate as engine of our narration. If these two elements are main elements of our narration, the theme of our narration is this: liberation of the frigid figure. This liberation had five step for figure: 1) isolation. 2) deformation 3) dissipation 4) disappearation 5) liberated figure as an acrobat, in other words, athleticism in the bedroom. These five step are five step of a theater that in the end of that, occur the liberation of the figure.