مجله تحقیقات حمایت و حفاظت جنگلها و مراتع ایران
سال بیست و دوم شماره 1 (پیاپی 43، بهار و تابستان 1403)

Native people's attack on the forests of the west of the country causes environmental crimes to be committed. Identifying the encroachment and human factors of forest destruction will provide correct management solutions to prevent and reduce the occurrence of environmental crimes. The approval and implementation of effective laws by the government and citizens' compliance with the law will reduce environmental and natural resource crimes.

In the prospective study, the economic and social factors affecting the change of forest use in Kermanshah province were investigated with respect to 87 legal cases belonging to 76 villages on the outskirts of the Zagros forests during the years 2018 to 2019 using linear modeling and path analysis. According to the level and place of destruction information available in the files, economic and social characteristics as independent variables, or causes, and the level of degraded forest as a dependent variable were investigated using Spearman's rank correlation analysis, multiple linear regression relationship, and path analysis in the form of a structural model. Due to the limited statistical population, all cases were examined without sampling. Due to the legal nature of the cases, only the destroyed surface area and the village where the destruction took place were extracted from these cases. A descriptive report was not provided for the management information received from the economic and executive institutions of the province, and only the relationship between this information and the committed crime was investigated.

The correlation of variables showed an increase in the distance between the village and the city, the ratio of light livestock to the population, and the ratio of livestock to the area of agricultural land and natural resources, lack of infrastructure facilities, low non-agricultural economic activity, and a decrease in the per capita ratio of land to population. The decrease in the ratio of irrigated to rainfed agriculture and the decrease in the ratio of heavy livestock to the population has caused the increase in forest destruction. A significant linear regression relationship was observed between the independent variables and the dependent variable, and the variables of the ratio of livestock to agricultural land, non-agricultural economic activity, infrastructure facilities, the ratio of the number of livestock to the area of natural resources, and the distance from the village to the city were entered into the model. It can be said that with the increase of non-agricultural economic activities, the ratio of livestock to the area of agricultural land has decreased and caused the reduction of forest destruction. On the other hand, the positive indirect effect of the ratio of livestock to agricultural land through non-agricultural economic activity on forest destruction was also observed. It seems that in formulating economic plans, environmental considerations are the main condition for protecting natural resources, and the results of this research also showed that the increase and development of non-agricultural economic activities of forest dwellers are important factors in preserving forest lands in Kermanshah province. The development of infrastructure facilities in the village played an important role in reducing the conversion of forest areas to agricultural lands, and it seems that gas supply, development of the electricity network, and the expansion of amenities can play a role in reducing forest destruction.

Finally, according to the results obtained from the path analysis, it can be said that keeping more heavy livestock and reducing the number of light livestock will reduce the destruction of forests in Kermanshah province. Also, the development of village infrastructure facilities and non-agricultural economic activities played an important role in reducing the destruction of forest areas. Therefore, in order to reduce the legal cases of forest destruction and prevent criminal behavior in this area, it is better to expand the infrastructure and increase the income of the villagers through non-agricultural economic activities and change the animal husbandry method from traditional to semi-industrial or industrial in order to see a decrease in the entry of such cases at the provincial level.

The altitude gradient is one of the important ecological factors in the distribution of different types of plant species in forest ecosystems, and the origin of altitude from sea level is related to the difference in altitude from open waters. The change in height from sea level, along with the change in vegetation, can affect the abundance of wood fungi. This research was conducted with the aim of studying the ecological effect of the altitude gradient on the abundance of wood fungi on beech species at different altitudes.

In total, 15 pure beech logs were randomly selected in three altitude gradients: (first) 550 to 650, (second) 650 to 750, and (third) 750 to 850 meters above sea level, in the educational and research forest of Darabkala Sari. To collect samples of wood macroscopic fungi, after observing the fungal samples, each sample was taken in a healthy, complete, and suitable form for identification based on morphological characteristics. Height characteristics from sea level and dry land were recorded with a positioning device, and the samples were transferred to the mycology laboratory for identification. To measure the microscopic organs, 20 samples of each of these organs were measured using a microscope with a graduated lens. Finally, to identify different fungal arrays, identification was based on both macroscopic and microscopic features, using various sources. To categorize the abundance of fungi in different altitude gradients, statistical calculations and cluster analysis were carried out in PAST software, using the Ward and Lesser Eghlidis distance, and analysis of principal components for different altitudes, species, abundance, relative frequency, and standard index were checked in PAST software by comparing two groups of fungi. Additionally, to check for height differences, multiple analyses and double plotting were done in Minitab software to reveal the groupings in terms of cloud points and distribution of wood fungi.

The obtained results showed that in the first height class, 13%, in the second 30%, and in the third 57% of all fungi were included. In the first height class, Hypholoma fasciculare was the most abundant, while Trametes versicolor dominated the second class, and Schizophyllum commune was the most abundant in the third class. Furthermore, the Polyporaceae, Xylariaceae, Ganodermataceae, Pleurotaceae, and Schizophyllaceae families had the highest frequency, while the Pezizaceae and Hericiaceae families had the lowest frequency. The results indicated that 10 species were distributed in the altitude class of 550 to 650 meters above sea level, 15 species were distributed in the altitude class of 650 to 750 meters above sea level, and 22 species were distributed in the altitude class of 750 to 850 meters above sea level. In addition, the most fungi families in the first altitudinal class were from the Meruliaceae family, whereas the second and third classes were primarily Polyporaceae. The analysis with Minitab showed that there is a significant difference in the distribution of wood fungi between the third and second floors, as well as between the first floor and the others. The findings regarding the ecological effect of the altitude gradient indicated that decomposition components reveal differences in fungi at different altitudes above sea level. These results showed that Fomes fomentarius, Ganoderma lucidum, Stereum hirsutum, Daldinia concentrica, Pleurotus ostreatus, Trametes versicolor, Trichaptum biforme, and Schizophyllum commune were among similar groups that were distributed across all three altitude classes, primarily within the Polyporaceae family and the Polyporales order.

The macroscopic wood fungi of the forest exhibit different responses across various gradients. The results of this study showed that the altitude gradient affects the abundance of wood fungi; the abundance of fungal species increases with elevation above sea level.

The forest ecosystem of Zagros has been attacked by pests and diseases in the last two decades. One of the most significant effects of climate change has been the reduction of frost days, especially in forest ecosystems. Reducing the frequency, intensity, and duration of the frost phenomenon facilitates the wintering of pests and reduces losses and deaths, intensifying their outbreaks. Northern Zagros forests (case study of Azerbaijan). Knowledge of the amount of changes in frost days leads managers and planners of the forest ecosystem toward better solutions to adapt to climate change.

 In this research, the ClimPACT software package was used in the R environment to investigate the changes in glacier indices. The indicators used in this research have been prepared by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the Climatology Commission (CCL), and the expert team on climate risk and specific climate indicators (ETCRSCI) to monitor, evaluate, and detect climate change in a place or region. The daily data of minimum temperature, maximum temperature, and precipitation for the statistical period of 1986 to 2019 at Piranshahr station and the statistical period of 1988 to 2019 at Sardasht station were obtained from the National Meteorological Organization. The data was prepared in the required format for entry into the ClimPACT model. The ClimPACT software package was implemented in the R environment, and the climate change-revealing indicators were screened as the output of the model. The cold indicators revealing the occurrence of climate change were separated in the limits of the Piranshahr and Sardasht deterioration monitoring sites in West Azerbaijan province in North Zagros: four cold temperature indicators were selected from among them. For the index of days with frost, severe frost, very severe frost, and icy days, changes in trend line, trend slope error, and significance in the statistical range of p-value = 0.05 were calculated, and changes for all indicators in the R software environment, drawing, and case analysis were conducted.

 Examining the linear trend slope, slope, and the significance of changes (p-value) in the index of days with frost in oak decay monitoring sites in Piranshahr and Sardasht showed that this index had a significant decreasing trend. This index showed a decrease of 48 days in Piranshahr and 63 days in Sardasht during the studied statistical period. Changes in the trend and significance of the extreme frost days index within the monitoring sites in Piranshahr and Sardasht showed that this index had a significant decreasing trend. This index decreased by 38 days in Piranshahr and 56 days in Sardasht during the studied statistical period. Examining the slope of the trend line, the error of the trend slope, and the significance of the changes in the index of extreme frost days in the range of monitoring sites in Piranshahr showed a significant decreasing trend, while in Sardasht, a significant increasing trend was observed. Changes in the trend and significance of the ice days index in the range of monitoring sites in Piranshahr showed a decreasing and non-significant trend, while in the range of monitoring sites in Sardasht, it showed a decreasing and significant trend.

One of the most critical challenges facing Iran’s natural environment today is the decline of Zagros oak forests. Various factors have contributed to the deterioration of these ecosystems, but climatic conditions stand out as the most significant. Cold climate indicators in the Piranshahr and Sardasht forests have shown a notable decreasing trend. This decline indicates that the wintering range for many pests and diseases has shrunk, creating favorable conditions for their growth. Considering other factors, this trend is likely to continue due to increasing temperatures in the coming years. Consequently, there will be increased stress related to temperature and humidity, leading to more outbreaks of pests and diseases. Zagros forests, particularly oak trees, play a vital role in maintaining natural resources, storing underground water, and mitigating the effects of climate change. Therefore, it is essential to preserve these valuable resources by leveraging scientific, technical, managerial, and executive approaches.

The red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum (Herbst)) (Tenebrionidae) is one of the main pests of stored products, especially cereal crops, all over the world. In recent years, to reduce the use of chemical pesticides, plant essential oils have gained attention. But despite their good potential, essential oils are unstable, and their toxicity decreases in a short time after use. Nanocapsule formulations can improve the efficiency of plant essential oils on stored product pests by increasing their toxicity and durability. This study was carried out with the aim of preparing nanocapsule formulations of essential oils of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. and Eucalyptus globulus Labill. and comparing their fumigant toxicity effects and non-formulated essential oils on T. castaneum adults.

 Eucalyptus leaves were collected from the Zaghmarz Eucalyptus research station in the south of Behshahr city, Mazandran Province, in July 2018. The collected dried leaves of Eucalyptus were hydrodistilled using a Clevenger-type apparatus. Identification of the constituents of essential oils was performed using GC-MS. Sodium alginate nanocapsules were prepared using basic hydrophilic surfactants. The survey of the surface and wall morphology of nanocapsules was conducted using a transmission electron microscope. The particle size distribution of nanocapsules was also determined. Fumigant toxicity testing was performed separately for each essential oil and nano-capsulated essential oil in four concentrations and at 24, 48, and 72 hours after applying the treatments, along with the control at 25°C and a relative humidity of 65% in darkness. PoloPlus software was used to estimate the LC10, LC25, LC50, and LC95.

 According to the results, the number of compounds in the essential oils of E. globulus was higher. The most important compounds of the essential oils of the two Eucalyptus species were terpenes, and 1,8-cineole, limonene, and pinene-α were the most important terpenes in the essential oils of E. globulus and E. camaldulensis, respectively. The results obtained from the transmission electron microscope images showed that nanocapsules containing Eucalyptus essential oil have nanoscale dimensions. The average particle size distribution for E. globulus and E. camaldulensis essential oil nanocapsules was determined to be about 150 and 100 nm, respectively. The essential oil of E. globulus was more toxic than the essential oil of E. camaldulensis. The values of LC50 at 24, 48, and 72 hours after treatment for essential oil nanocapsules of E. globulus and E. camaldulensis were 5.9, 4.63, 3.8, and 9.5, 8.67, 6.7, respectively, and LC50 for raw essential oils of E. globulus and E. camaldulensis were 10.93, 9.63, 5.7, and 15.09, 12.86, 8.2 ml per liter of air, respectively. Based on the results, the nanocapsule formulation of the essential oils of both species, compared to the raw essential oil, showed a decrease in LC50, and the durability of the encapsulated essential oil also increased.

 Based on our results, nanoencapsulation of Eucalyptus essential oil increased the fumigant toxicity of the essential oils by enhancing toxicity and the controlled release of effective compounds in controlling this pest. Therefore, this nanocapsule formulation is recommended for further toxicity tests and eventually its use in storage.

The Zagros forests vegetation area, with an area of more than 5 million hectares and providing more than 40% of the country's water, is ecologically very important. The forest covers 256,000 hectares of Kurdistan province (8.8% of the province) and makes a significant contribution to carbon sequestration. Atmospheric carbon dioxide has increased significantly in recent decades. In reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide, vegetation and the soil beneath it play a very important role. The aerial parts of trees (the ground layer) contribute greatly to biomass production and carbon sequestration. The purpose of this research was to investigate the carbon sequestration of the tree layer in two sample plots: Garan (Gargh and protected stands) and Dolah Naw (typical forests of the province).

 In order to carry out this research, two samples from Garan and Dolah Naw in Marivan County were selected. In each region, a square sample plot of one hectare was established, and with 100% statistical inventory, quantitative characteristics, including tree species, breast diameter, tree height, crown height, and crown area, were recorded. In both sample plots, the trunks and top branches of the trees were sampled, and for this purpose, three trees were selected for each species in each plot. Samples were taken from the trunk, main branches, and secondary branches of the trees. In the laboratory, the wet weight, dry weight, and carbon percentage of wood samples were calculated by burning the dried samples in an electric furnace. Then, the above-ground biomass of trees was calculated using allometric equations, and finally, the carbon stock of all trees was estimated. The quantitative parameters and the average of the above-ground biomass and carbon stock were compared. An independent t-test was used to compare quantitative parameters and carbon storage in the two sample plots of Garan and Dolah Naw.

 The findings of the research showed that the amount of biomass on the ground in Dolah Naw and Garan sample plots was 45.3 and 41.4 tons per hectare, respectively. In the Dolah Naw sample plot, two species, Quercus brantii and Q. infectoria, with a total of 24.68 tons per hectare, accounted for 54.5% of the biomass of the tree layer. The carbon stock of the tree layer in Dolah Naw and Garan samples was calculated as 22.4 and 20.3 tons per hectare, respectively, and the results of the independent t-test showed a significant difference between the quantitative characteristics of diameter at breast height, total height, tree crown area, biomass, and carbon storage in the two sample plots. The contribution of the Q. infectoria species to carbon sequestration in Dolah Naw and Garan samples was 6.48 and 9.13 tons per hectare, respectively. On the other hand, the averages of quantitative characteristics, including tree height (3.7 meters), diameter at breast height (15.79 cm), and crown area (6.77 square meters), in the Dolah Naw sample plot were greater than those in the Garan sample plot.

 The general results showed that the carbon storage of Dolah Naw stands (wood biomass with slightly higher forest characteristics) was greater than that of Garan forest. To optimally manage these forests and increase carbon dioxide storage, it is essential to manage and control the factors of forest destruction (such as the development of agriculture under the forest canopy, intensive grazing, excess livestock capacity, fire management and control, coal mining, and other factors) and take action in degraded areas to promote reforestation and afforestation using native species (Quercus brantii, Quercus infectoria, Quercus libani, and Pistacia atlantica) in the destroyed stands.

The use of medicinal plants has grown greatly in developed countries, so that most of the world's population uses medicinal plants for primary health care. With the increasing demand of global markets, more attention is needed in the field of identifying and preserving medicinal plants. Not having enough knowledge about the sustainable exploitation of medicinal plants has put many of them at risk of extinction. Ferula assa-foetida is one of the endemic and medicinal species of Iran's rangeland, and the oleo-gum resin produced by it is one of the country's export products. According to the increase in the price of F. assa-foetida in recent years, unfortunately, the improper harvesting and oleo-resin of F. assa-foetida resin in terms of suitable age for exploitation have diminished. The number of annual harvests, as well as the method of exploitation, has reduced the density of F. assa-foetida plants in pastures, and the generation of this useful plant is at risk of extinction. Therefore, the purpose of the present study is to determine the best methods of exploitation for F. assa-foetida in order to continue its growth in natural areas.

This research was carried out in Tangsarakh rangeland, Boyer-Ahmad County. After the detection of the region, areas were selected for the research, which were similar to each other in terms of slope percentage, vegetation, and soil appearance, and had a sufficient number of F. assa-foetida plants at different ages. The effect of cutting age factors (three treatments: 5-6 years old, 7-8 years old, and 9-10 years old), cutting method (three treatments: one-sided, two-sided, and traditional cutting methods), and cutting number (three treatments: cutting 10, 15, and 20 times) was checked with 10 repetitions on survival percentage. Also, at the end of the vegetative period in the second year, the morphological characteristics of F. assa-foetida were measured. Analysis of plant survival in different harvesting methods was done using the logistic regression method with SPSS software version 21.

The results of logistic regression analysis showed that all treatments had a significant effect on the survival of the plant (p = 0.05). With increasing age of the plant, the survival rate decreases. At the ages of 5-6 years, 7-8 years, and 9-10 years, respectively, 51, 50, and 34 plant bases were regrown, and 39, 40, and 56 plant bases were lost. In one-sided and two-sided cutting methods, 71 and 64 plant bases re-grew, respectively, and in the traditional cutting method, no plant base re-grew. The results of the survival of F. assa-foetida in different numbers of cuts showed that in the treatments of 10, 15, and 20 times of cutting, 51, 44, and 40 plant bases were regrown and 39, 46, and 50 plant bases were lost. The mean leaf length was 39.88 cm, the mean leaf width was 12.77 cm, the mean leaf height was 36.88 cm, the mean number of leaves was 7.27, and the root diameter was 9.18 cm.

Considering that F. assa-foetida is an important endemic plant with high economic value, the livelihood of a large number of users depends on the product of this plant. Therefore, it is suggested to use the results of this research in the study area and other areas with similar ecological conditions to manage F. assa-foetida habitats.

Determining the state of distribution of species and the habitats occupied by them is very important in species protection and management programs. The use of modeling to predict the distribution of species has increased in recent years. For this purpose, a wide range of modeling techniques has been developed. In this regard, the present research was conducted with the aim of evaluating the capability of logistic regression and the maximum entropy method in preparing a prediction map of the habitat expansion of Artemisia chamaemelifolia species and determining the factors affecting its distribution in Ardabil province.

 In the rangelands of Ardabil province, 449 study sites, including 102 sites of presence and 347 sites of non-presence of the species, were recorded from 2018 to 2021. Two categories of environmental factors, including bioclimatic variables (19 cases), three primary topographic indices (elevation, slope, and aspect), and five secondary topographic indices (topographic wetness index, topographic position index, topographic roughness index, stream power index, and plan curvature index), were investigated in relation to the presence of the species. Bioclimatic variables with a spatial resolution of 2.5 minutes, equivalent to 5 km², were downloaded from worldclim.org. The maps of topographical variables were produced using the maps of the digital elevation model in a geographic information system environment. Maps of all environmental factors were prepared and overlapped with 70% of the data. Environmental information was extracted for sample points. Collinearity between independent variables was checked. In the next step, the regression relationship between species presence and independent variables was extracted in SPSS software. Then, by combining the maps of factors affecting species distribution and applying the relevant regression relationship, the distribution map was predicted through the logistic regression method. To prepare the prediction map of A. chamaemelifolia habitat through the maximum entropy method in the MaxEnt software environment, the environmental layers were converted to ASCII format, and the species presence points were converted to CSV format. The maps prepared in both models were classified based on the optimal threshold of species presence into two classes: species presence and non-presence. The Kappa index was used to check the accuracy of prepared maps and compare their performance.

 The results of the modeling showed that elevation was the most effective environmental factor in the distribution of the species. The altitude range of presence of A. chamaemelifolia in Ardabil province was found to be from 2100 to 2900 meters. The Kappa coefficient obtained from the comparison of the predicted and real maps for the logistic regression model was 0.962, and for the maximum entropy model, it was 0.871, which are at a very good to excellent level. The logistic regression model identified slope percentage, precipitation of the coldest season, precipitation of the driest month, and the average range of daily temperature as influencing variables in the occurrence of the species in Ardabil province. Based on the jackknife test resulting from the implementation of maximum entropy in the MaxEnt environment, the most important variables affecting the suitability of A. chamaemelifolia habitat were seasonal precipitation and elevation.

 The results of the present study have provided key and important information about the range of tolerance of the A. chamaemelifolia species to the influencing environmental variables. Relying on the results of the current study, arrangements can be made to protect and restore habitats with current or potential distribution of A. chamaemelifolia species.

Poplars are important tree species in poplar plantations and agroforestry programs due to their fast growth, high biomass production, and ecological adaptation. On the other hand, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can have a good symbiosis with different poplar species. With this symbiosis, growth parameters, biomass production, absorption of water and nutrients, as well as the resistance of poplars to environmental stress, will be increased. Understanding the relationship between mycorrhizas and poplars and how mycorrhizas affect the growth and nutrition of such species may contribute to producing stronger and healthier plants and more sustainable practices in the future.

 In this study, first of all, the root mycorrhizal colonization percentage of some poplar species (available in the poplar research collection of Alborz Research Center) with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi was investigated. Then, considering the high percentage of mycorrhizal symbiosis of Populus nigra “62/154” trees and the importance of this clone as a high-yielding poplar clone, widely used in poplar plantations in different parts of the country, symbiotic fungi with this clone were identified through the morphological properties of spores in the rhizosphere soil, and then the identified mycorrhizal fungi were used to produce mycorrhizal plants. Then, poplar cuttings were collected from the Alborz Research Center and planted in pots filled with clay-loam soil. The pots were kept outdoors during the experiment. At the time of planting, mycorrhizal inoculum was applied around each cutting. After that, under an experimental layout consisting of a completely randomized design, some morphophysiological (growth parameters, biomass production, and physiological parameters of leaves) and biochemical (macro and micro nutrients of root, stem, and leaf) responses of one-year-old mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal poplar plants were investigated.

 The results showed that the percentage of root mycorrhizal colonization of different poplar species was different. The highest percentage of root mycorrhizal colonization was observed in P. nigra “62/154” and P. euphratica, and the lowest percentage in P. deltoides “69/55”. In the soil samples collected from the rhizosphere of P. nigra “62/154”, five species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, including Claroideoglomus luteum, Diversispora tortuosa, Glomus aggregatum, Septoglomus constrictum, and Scutellospora heterogama, were identified. The results demonstrated that mycorrhizal treatment had a significant positive effect (P < 0.01) on growth parameters (diameter and stem length), biomass production (root and shoot dry weight and total dry weight), relative water content of leaves, and nutrient concentrations (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, iron, zinc, and copper) of some plant tissues. Likewise, the content of proline and soluble sugars and the activity of antioxidant enzymes in leaves of mycorrhizal plants increased compared to non-mycorrhizal plants.

 The high symbiosis percentage of different poplar species with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in natural conditions and the positive effect of mycorrhizal symbiosis on one-year-old poplar plants show that, considering the importance of the role of soil microbial communities in plant nutrition, growth, and protection against environmental stresses, investigating the biological interactions between soil microorganisms and poplars, especially in the early stages of growth, can be used to produce healthy and strong plants for poplar plantations.

Fire is a destructive phenomenon in natural areas, affecting large parts of forests and rangelands annually with both quantitative and qualitative impacts. One of the most significant consequences is its negative impact on soil conservation, at least in the short term. The average annual area affected by fire in the world’s forests is estimated at four million square kilometers, leading to the destruction of vegetation, global warming, air pollution, loss of biodiversity, and intensified desertification.

Given the importance of this issue, the effects of fire on soil surface cover were studied in the Farakash shrubland habitat in Lorestan province in 2017, 2018, and 2019. This site is located at geographical coordinates 33° 29’ 33” to 33° 30’ 12” N latitude and 48° 38’ 57” to 48° 40’ 56” E longitude, covering an area of 500 hectares, with an average elevation of 2050 meters above sea level. The statistical population consisted of 4 transects of 200 meters, each with 10 plots of 1 square meter spaced every 20 meters, totaling 40 plots in the treatment area. This was repeated exactly in the control field, resulting in a total of 240 plots studied. In these plots, the canopy cover was assessed using vertical images of species on the ground, along with amounts of bare soil, litter, and stones. The range condition was determined using Parker’s four-factor method, suitable for rangelands in semi-arid areas, and the condition trend was assessed by scoring the condition of the soil and vegetation. Pairwise comparisons and multivariate data averages were analyzed using a T-test, one-way ANOVA, and Duncan’s comparison method.

The results showed a significant difference at the one percent level (P≤0.01) between the average values of the canopy, litter, and soil in the two areas over the statistical years. The percentage of vegetation and litter in the burnt field decreased significantly, while bare soil increased. This effect was so strong that it reduced the total plant canopy from 52.54% to 41.44%, causing a negative slope in the burned area compared to the control up to nine years after the fire. It was also found that fire led to the reduction of woody plants and the increase of grasses, changing the vegetation type from Astragalus adscendens-Daphne mucronata-Agropyron trichophorum to Agropyron trichophorum-Annual grasses. The results indicate that fire increases bare soil and erosion. This destruction is caused by quantitative changes such as the reduction of canopy, litter, and natural mulch, and qualitative changes such as alterations in plant composition, vegetative form, structure, age classes, soil seed bank, phenology, and moisture levels. Overall, fire influences the stages of soil erosion by changing vegetation type.

Given the current conditions in fire-affected areas, management programs such as implementing short and medium-term enclosures, determining appropriate stocking rates, seeding, and mulching with fire-resistant species compatible with the climatic and edaphic conditions of these areas can help preserve and restore vegetation and prevent erosion. Finally, due to the common ownership of Iran’s natural areas and the lack of a coherent reclamation plan for burnt areas, controlled fires are not recommended in these regions.

Knowing the habitat and life cycle of pests forms the basis of the knowledge of pest population control, and its application in pest control operations brings favorable environmental and economic achievements for society. In the years when the climatic conditions are favorable, an optimal opportunity is provided for the vegetation and the population of herbivorous insects to try to increase their population and spread their species more widely. A survey conducted in the central Alborz mountains in Tehran province, specifically in the Imamzadeh Hashem and Shamshak areas, from 1380 to 1400 revealed that the pasture species Ferula ovina grows in these regions. The most significant pest of this plant is the moth Malacosoma castrensis, whose larval stages feed on it. Female moths typically lay their eggs in groups, forming rings on the surface around the stems and branches of the host plant.

The outbreak of M. castrensis species in the plant habitats of the southern Alborz slopes, in particular, in two F. ovina habitats located in the mountain slopes in the Emamzade Hashem and Shemshek regions, was observed and investigated. To carry out this research, the population of larvae was estimated using a systematic-random sampling method. The working method was as follows: in three imaginary parallel strips, 50 meters apart and 300 meters long, in a regular random style with a distance of 10 meters, the larvae of M. castrensis were counted on the selected host plant. After taking photos and combining the density of this plant per surface unit, which was the dominant species of the two investigated habitats, the larval population of this species was estimated.

The conclusion is that the most important pest of the F. ovina plant is moth larvae with the scientific name M. castrensis. It lives at an altitude of 2000 to 3200 meters, and the percentage of slope and the direction of the slope do not create a limit for the presence of this type of moth. The average population of these larvae was 1,171,600 per hectare in the Emamzadeh Hashem region and 691,200 in the Shemshak region. Since the observations of the feeding behavior of the larvae were the same in the two regions, and the Ferula ovina plant was their exclusive food, the percentage of coverage and density of the host plant was evaluated as the same in the two regions.

The abundance of food cannot be the reason for the difference in the population of Malacosma larvae in the two regions. Due to the similarity of the ambrothermic diagrams in the two regions, the macro weather indicators were also evaluated the same in both areas. Field observations in the two regions showed that snow melting occurs seven to ten days earlier in the Emamzade Hashem region compared to Shemshek. According to this event, the population difference in the two regions can be attributed to the micro-temperature differences during day and night, as well as the duration of the freezing period in spring. It is concluded that controlling the population of the moth M. castrensis through parasitoids is feasible. By providing the necessary knowledge and methods that do not involve poisons, the damage caused by this species can be managed. Therefore, further research on ecosystem-related and climatic factors is needed to develop integrated management methods for this moth.

Regular and intelligent monitoring of pests and plant diseases in forest and pasture plants is essential for developing comprehensive natural resource management programs. Collecting information and studying the previous and current conditions of pests and plant diseases, as well as their control limits, provide practical information regarding the existence, time of appearance during the year, control levels, methods used, and the effectiveness of control measures. Due to the unique environmental conditions of the Sistan region (warm and dry) and its proximity to Afghanistan and Pakistan, the necessity of monitoring pests and plant diseases in forest trees and pasture plants in this region is particularly critical.

To determine the sampling stations, a preliminary survey was conducted based on the area of the Sistan region and its ecological zones. Five sampling stations were selected, and sampling was conducted at these stations according to the activity periods of each damaging factor. Sampling followed a regular schedule and was directly based on the type and degree of contamination. Collected samples were taken to the laboratory, where the type and extent of infestation or the estimated percentage of damage were recorded. After data preparation and recording, the samples were sent to the Iranian Research Institute of Plant Protection for identification and naming by experts in the insect classification department.

Due to soil salinity in the region, the largest infestation of pasture species was observed in the Chenopodiaceae family. A butterfly species, Epiparthia simpliciella (Lep.: Pyralidae), was active on plants such as Hamada griffithii and Haloxylon sp., particularly Seidlitzia rosmarinus. The larvae of this species severely damaged these plants by feeding on their leaves and stems. The larvae of Bruchidius dilutus (Col.: Bruchidae) heavily fed on the fruits and seeds of the important pasture plant Alhagi camelorum. Tamarix plants were infested by the scale insect Trabutina serpentina (Hem.: Pseudococcidae). The larvae of the moth Nephopterygia austeritella (Lep.: Pyralidae) affected the fruit of the mesquite pasture plant. On the leaves and stems of Capparis spinosa, two adult insects, Phyllotreta lativittata (Col.: Chrysomelidae) and Nezara viridula (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), caused damage. Additionally, two butterfly larvae, Thyridophora furia (Lep.: Crambidae) and Gypsonoma minutana (Lep.: Tortricidae), caused severe damage to its fruit. A species of parasitoid wasp of the genus Brachon sp. was also collected from the samples grown in the laboratory and is being identified at the Iranian Research Institute of Plant Protection.

Monitoring, identifying, and recording pest outbreaks and planning for their management is imperative due to the increasing population expansion and associated damage. Therefore, careful, timely, and regular monitoring of damaging factors in the pasture and forest communities of this region is essential to prevent the occurrence and outbreak of pests.

Carpinus orientalis Mill is a native tree growing in the forests of northern Iran. This tree-shrub plant is shorter and more branched compared to hornbeam (Carpinus betulus L.) and thrives in sunny and rocky areas. The Cytospora genus is known as a primary agent of canker, causing damage to trees affected by stress factors such as water stress, frost stress, sunburn, or mechanical damage (caused by non-living and living agents such as insects). Disease occurrence by different species of Cytospora spp. has been reported in a wide range of hosts, including species from the genera Populus, Salix, Acer, Ulmus, Alnus, Fraxinus, Prunus, Sorbus, Cydonia, Amelanchier, and many others.

To identify the causes of Oriental hornbeam decline in Mazandaran province, samples from infected tissue were collected and transferred to the laboratory for fungal isolation. The most prominent symptoms of the disease were shoot dieback and dead or dying branches visible from a distance. In humid weather, cankers exuded clear amber resin, which eventually formed a clear white crust on the branches. In young seedlings, dried leaves remained on the branches, and the seedlings were completely desiccated, indicating the high severity of the disease. Fungal isolates were obtained by removing a mucoid spore mass from conidiomata (from the canker areas) and by disinfecting and culturing infected tissue on Potato-Dextrose-Agar (PDA) medium, incubated at 23±2°C in darkness. After purification of the fungal isolate by single spore, various morphological characteristics including spore shape and size, colony diameter, growth rate, and pigment production were evaluated on PDA medium.

 The fungus grew rapidly on PDA and produced cream-white to hyaline, moderate to profusely cottony aerial hyphae. Conidia were hyaline, unicellular, with thin walls and no septa. A transverse section of the infected tissues showed long conidiophores inside the fungal stromata. Based on morphological characteristics, the fungus was identified as Cytospora sp. The morphological results indicated a similarity between this isolate and C. decipiens species. This is the first report of ‘Carpinus orientalis decline’ caused by Cytospora species in Iran.

 Investigating the epidemiology and management of cytosporic canker disease is of particular importance because its development is expected to intensify under future drought and climate stress conditions. Currently, due to increasing reports of decline caused by Cytospora, especially in Hornbeam species, the lack of information about the host range and epidemiology of the fungus, and the possible role of climate change in disease development, it is clear that this disease warrants further study.