نشریه پژوهشهای معرفت شناختی
سال سیزدهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 27، بهار و تابستان 1403)

Merleau-Ponty, like other existentialist philosophers, believes that every human being has a special situation, position and existence in the world, that this existence is a product of being-in-the-world, and on the other hand, man, from his point of view, is a special situation and being-in-the-world. - Experiences the world. And the body makes the living man find himself and his existence. In this article, an attempt is made to evaluate Merleau-Ponty's attitude about the two previous concepts in the works and the attitude of the Impressionists and the works of Claude Monet as an example. Monet's works express Merleau-Ponty's conscious body experience, which portrays the situation he perceives based on living and being-in-the-world. In fact, this being in the world, in Merleau-Ponty's interpretation, is the same way of life that the impressionists use for illustration, and it has become their painting style. The main question of the article is that considering that Merleau-Ponty believes that human connection with the outside world is based on sensory perception, and on the other hand, art, especially painting, is a manifestation of sensory perception, is the attitude of the Impressionists, including Claude Monet, also in drawing the outside world? Is it like Merleau-Ponty's attitude or not? Because Claude Monet also achieves a special kind of sensory and visual perception of the outside world by using light in his paintings, and this makes Monet aligned with Merleau-Ponty's thinking.

Imagination is a mental activity with which we can imagine an event free from its temporal and spatial characteristics. This function of the mind provides us with the necessary conditions for secondary and internal observation of primary external observations. In a way, it can be said that imagination plays a fundamental role in human perception and not only makes a person capable of advanced theoretical understanding, but also gives a person the necessary ability to capture the outside world and achieve their goals. Farabi and Spinoza both paid attention to the importance and use of imagination. In a way, it can be said that for both, imaginative cognition is an important pillar in human perception. Farabi considers the re-summoning of the sensory form after its absence and the ability to analyze and combine sensory forms after the absence of sensory observation as the primary role of the imagination, which not only gives a person the ability to go beyond sensory perception and recognize external observations and their similarities, but also It prepares the human mind to understand the general perception. In a way, it can be said that the power of imagination is the link connecting sensory perceptions with intellectual perceptions. Spinoza considers the perception caused by the body's impressions from the outside world as vague experience or imaginative perception because this type of perception does not give us knowledge about the truth of objects and their relationships, and only gives us vague ideas that are useful for our living. Therefore, although Farabi accepts the realism of imaginary sensory perception, Spinoza places practical value on them and does not place theoretical value on them, and considers imagination to include sensory, experimental, and imaginary perceptions, knowledge resulting from the frequency of general concepts and even false notions.
 
 

In the present day, drug addiction stands as a major global affliction. Addiction cannot be cured, as stated by medical world. The origin of insecurity in science is based on these theories. One factor that can lead to misdiagnosis and treatment is the ambiguous nature of natural language and linguistic misunderstandings by consumers, therapists, people, and society regarding this category. To resolve this problem, one must engage in philosophical exploration through the study of the vocabulary of this field in the context of language analysis. Analytical philosophy has the capacity to help resolve these misunderstandings. The objective of this article is to assess the feasibility and introduce the capabilities of analytical philosophy in relation to drug abuse. By using specialized terminology and the analytical language approach, it aims to provide solutions and enable individuals to take effective steps towards changing their mindset towards comprehending the issue. Our objective is to explore the connection between analytical philosophy and the problem of drug abuse in four different areas: 1- Examining the hidden structure of language and resolving the ambiguities that arise from natural language. 2- The relationship between meaning and application. 3- The ability to understand language and engage in social interaction. 4- The connection between truth and implementation (Truth theories).

Today, although the debates related to knowledge have expanded, the question of the possibility of knowledge and certainty is still the starting point of epistemological debates. Wittgenstein and Moore are two influential philosophers of the 20th century who stand in an important position against each other. Moore is the only philosopher that Wittgenstein mentions in the book On Certainty and it was Moores view on knowledge that is the basis of the Austrian philosopher for further discussions about knowledge and certainty. In response to the problem of the possibility of knowledge and the problem of skepticism, Moore claims that there are facts that we know and have knowledge of. He lists a list of propositions whose knowledge is certain. Wittgensteins approach to this claim has a negative and a positive side. According to Wittgenstein, Moores propositions such as here is a hand are not correct examples of knowledge or knowing Moore does not use them correctly. There is a difference between knowledge and certainty. Knowledge and certainty belong to different categories. On the other hand, Wittgenstein is with Moore in attributing a different role to the mentioned propositions in the epistemic system. Wittgensteins criticism of Moore does not weaken the epistemological status of Moores propositions, but gives a more fundamental basis to such propositions.

The purpose of this article is to extract the goals and principles of learning based on the epistemological foundations of educational neuroscience. In this research, with documentary method and conceptual analysis, the foundations of the first type and the second type, the epistemological foundations of educational neurosciences have been explained, and then, with the progressive inference method (modified by Frankena), the goals and principles of learning based on the epistemological foundations of educational neurosciences, with The use of two practical analogies have been obtained. Some of the goals obtained from this method are "relevant to life, describing problem solutions and learning, studying the mind in all dimensions, optimal learning, education based on individual differences, producing valid and useful knowledge" And some of the principles obtained according to these goals and the principles of the second type include: the principle of physicality, the principle of non-linear learning, the principle of brain change, the principle of relaxed consciousness, the principle of brain integration, the principle of creating attention and focusing on learning. The results of this research can be used to improve the learning process of students in the classroom. However, for more accreditation, it is necessary to combine these findings and educational sciences, in this way, by combining these two fields, great progress can be made in the field of learning.

Positivist historiography is one of the types of modern historiography that emerged in the 19th century due to the influence of the spread of positivism. Giving authenticity to experience and observation, separating objective propositions from value judgments, trying to write history as it happened, documentation and relying on original sources are the most important assumptions of this type of historiography. In fact, from the point of view of positivists, the historian is an accurate and reliable reporter who seeks to discover the past rather than to reconstruct it by referring to authentic documents and evidence. In other words, the external objective world (history in the sense of past events) is waiting for a realistic discovery by the historian. With this description, without trying to impose a modern concept on a pre-modern epistemology, this article seeks to answer the main question: Are there signs and examples of historiography based on these assumptions in the Iranian-Islamic historiography tradition? Based on the findings of the research of some great Muslim historians such as Biruni, Meskawieh, Maghdisi, Yaqoubi, Masoudi, Hamza Esfahani, etc., believed in the principles and methods that were accepted and emphasized by positivist historians in the 19th and 20th centuries.

This research was done with the purpose of explaining and investigating the epistemological foundations of philosophical counseling.

The type of this research is theoretical in terms of purpose and qualitative in terms of approach. Various methods were used to collect data and to achieve the objectives of the research. The main method used in this research is the analytical method. For this purpose, the method of conceptual analysis and interpretation and conceptualization was used to explain the research question.

In philosophical counseling, acquiring knowledge is a human achievement that is obtained as a result of constructing meanings and evaluating human realities. Hence, the subject is human knowledge and human knowledge can always be re-considered and evaluated. This approach is based on eight epistemological foundations including: the inseparability of knowledge and human existence, genuine knowledge against false knowledge, the experimental and cross-cultural nature of knowledge, going beyond discursive knowledge and the fundamental transformation of references, direct and critical knowledge, the impartiality of a consultant in The process of acquiring knowledge is based on self-awareness and human's innate desire to realize knowledge. The most important source of acquiring knowledge in philosophical counseling is the senses of ontology and the most important means of acquiring knowledge are dialogue, formal logic, phenomenology, examination and analysis of clients' experiences, and language analysis.

One of the most important issues in the field of epistemology of ethics is the possibility or impossibility of obtaining moral cognition. In this article, we examine moral beliefs that are propositions; it studies the possibility of being right and wrong of the propositions derived from real affairs or expressing desires, tendencies and expressing feelings, or even they are the kind of imperatives. The humen are often capable of doing moral action; While they often don't even have the ability to express or argue about it. Although people do not speak confidently about their moral cognition, they do moral action whether it would be right or wrong. In the first part of this article, people's confidence and intuition about moral cognition and action are discussed. In the second part of this study, moral cognitivism argues that moral propositions express a kind of cognition and can be really right or wrong, but on the other hand, there are some other philosophical currents in the field of ethics that put the possibility of moral cognition under the question. And these philosophical currents that are opposite to cognitivism are known as non-cognitivism and moral skepticism. According to non-cognitivists, moral imperatives and propositions are not beliefs about real affairs and do not have the ability to be right or wrong. Although skeptics accept that humen are supposed to have moral beliefs, they believe that these beliefs are completely unjustified. In this article, the above-mentioned issues are discussed.

The current research was carried out with the aim of drawing a thinking model based on the teachings of Nahjal-Balagheh. This research is based on the qualitative research method of foundation data type with the Strauss and Corbin approach. The statistical population of the current research is all the propositions of the Nahjal-Balagha book and the sample selection method is the theoretical sampling method, which includes the propositions issued by Imam Ali(a.s.) about meditation.The data were also analyzed with three methods of open, central and selective coding. The findings of the research showed that human nature, the desire for knowledge, responsibility and will are among the causal conditions of the phenomenon of contemplation, faith, amazement, the benefit of the heart, hearing and sight, the religion of Islam and the phenomenon of death are the background conditions of contemplation, the use of intelligence, limitations, and relationships. In Nahjal-Balagheh's view, mundaneness and impressionability are the interfering conditions of thinking. Questioning, tolerating ambiguity, comprehensiveness, consultation, avoiding excommunication and avoiding determinism of the results of thinking, among the strategies of thinking and knowledge of God, trust and friendship are consequences of thinking. The model of thinking presented by Nahjal-Balagheh, while incorporating most of the views raised in the matter of thinking, also put forward some aspects such as criticism of the originality of sense, criticism of the originality of reason, criticism of mathematical thinking, the comprehensiveness of wonder and the discussion of love, which is compared to Other models have distinguished and distinguished

Contemporary man, who lives in the era of information and communication technology and is in a sense under the control of Cyberspace, is faced with issues that have made it difficult for him to distinguish truth from error. This difficulty has the same nature as the epistemological problems of ancient Greece, which were created by the Sophists and solved by Plato's enlightenment. The aim of the current research is to investigate whether Plato's position against the sophists can be a solution to the problems of Syber space? This research has been carried out with a descriptive-analytical method and the findings indicate that although there is no absolute compatibility between the infrastructure and the content of the Cyberspace with the nature and practice of the sophist, and the basis and purpose of creating the Cyberspace is different from all kinds of sophistry which was done by the false claimants of philosophy; At the same time, in use, there is a significant closeness between these two procedures. Correspondence between sophistry and Cyberspace is clear in components such as the use of appearance instead of truth, opinion instead of knowledge, neglect of human knowledge, and the preference of speech or writing. The way out of the problems of Syberspace according to the Platonic approach is to pay attention to the two elements of "rationality" and "spirituality".

The relationship between language and reality, the role of language in thought, and the structure and function of language have been topics of interest in philosophy since ancient times. These topics became central to the study of psychology and linguistics in the 17th and 18th centuries. This paper examines the interplay between language and mind in Locke's thought, focusing on traditional and modern interpretations of his views. By examining Locke's epistemological and linguistic ideas, especially in his books "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" and "Some Thoughts Concerning Education," we conclude that he proposes a theory of language as a system of codes. He considers words to be symbols of mental concepts and language to be a mirror of culture. Due to its complexity, subtlety, the diversity of philosophical and ideological presuppositions, historical developments in philosophy and linguistics, and ultimately the ambiguity in Locke's writing, this view has been interpreted in four different ways: traditional, structuralist, pragmatic, and feminist. This paper examines and critiques these four approaches, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses. It aims to present a philosophical explanation of Locke's linguistic theory, free from political, social, ideological, and feminist controversies.

Although the background of the correspondence theory as a criterion of truth goes back to the Plato's doctrine of ideas, the proposing and development of this theory takes place in Aristotle's philosophy. According to Aristotle, truth means the correspondence of a judgment or statement with reality, and untruth and falsehood mean non-correspondence. Since the time of Aristotle, the correspondence theory, despite its ups and downs, has always been one of the dominant theories in the field of epistemology. Of course, some philosophers, while paying attention to the correspondence theory, have pointed to something prior to this theory, which basically made it possible to be proposed. Heidegger and Suhrawardi, while criticizing the philosophical traditions before themselves, have emphasized that the basic understanding of man and his relationship with objects and phenomena is not a matter of proposition and judgment. Now important question arises: what is prior to the propositional truth that provides the possibility of truth in the meaning of correspondence? With a descriptive-analytical method, this article tries to investigate this question from the point of view of Suhrawardi and Heidegger. Heidegger believes that the truth in the sense of unhiddenness (Aletheia) is the primary meaning of truth, and the forgetting of this meaning has caused truth to be proposed in the meaning of correspondence. Suhrawardi also believes that truth in the sense of the intuition of objects precedes the correspondence theory. Heidegger and suhrawardi believe that the correspondence theory does not have the necessary efficiency for the disclosure of truth.