فصلنامه تازه های علوم شناختی
سال بیست و ششم شماره 2 (پیاپی 103، تابستان 1403)

Family is known as the most essential unit of society, and marriage is the most basic human relationship (1). Marital conflicts are an interactive process that occurs when one person’s behavior does not match the other person’s expectations (5). Communication is one of the leading life skills, and couples with constructive communication patterns experience a stable life (7). Communication imagery therapy believes that choosing a spouse is not a conscious process; an essential part of it is unconscious, and its result is the need to complete the unfinished stages of childhood (10). The solution-focused theory has a collaborative perspective, and emphasizing the client’s abilities, leads him to create a solution and move towards a desirable future (13). If couples do not have the ability to manage conflicts, they will experience consequences, such as a collapse of life and divorce. The current research aims to investigate whether there is a difference between the effectiveness of these two therapeutic approaches on the communication patterns of conflicted couples؟

This research was a semi-experimental design with a pre-test, post-test, and follow-up (three months) with a control group. The statistical population consists of all conflicted couples who were referred to counseling centers in Hamedan, Iran, in the years 2022-2023. Code of ethics obtained: (IR.IAU.ARAK.REC.1403.096). The sampling method was purposeful. Forty-five couples were divided into three groups (two experimental group and one control group). Treatment protocols were performed online in ten sessions of 90 minutes. Due to the withdrawal of the subjects from each experimental group, two couples were dropped, and the data using the variance analysis method with repeated measurements and software SPSS-26 was analyzed. Inclusion criteria: willingness to attend meetings, age range of 25 to 45 years, and have not taken legal action for divorce. Exclusion criteria: unwillingness to cooperate and legal action for divorce Tools: Questionnaires of communication patterns (Christensen and Sullaway, 1983) (19) and marital conflicts (Sanaei Zaker et al., 2008) (21), Communication imagery couple therapy protocol (Hendrix and Hunt, 2013) (23), solution-focused couples therapy protocol (Macdonald, 2007) (24).

In the group of communication imagery, the mean and standard deviation (SD) of the age of female participants were 32.77 and 3.22 years, and males were 36.92 and 3.15 years. In the solution-focused group, the mean and SD of the age of women were 31.85 and 3.36 years, and men were 36.38 and 3.43 years, In the control group, the mean and SD of the age of women were 33.33 and 2.77 years, and men were 37.67 and 2.41 years. The Shapiro-Wilk values indicated the normal distribution of the data. Using the Levene’s test showed that the assumption of homogeneity of error variances was established for all three communication patterns in the data. Bax’s M statistics index is not significant, and the chi-square value obtained from the Mauchly test is insignificant for all three communication patterns. Multivariate analysis test results showed that the effect of implementing treatments on communication patterns was significant. Bonferroni test showed that both couples therapies were effective in improving communication patterns, but communication imagery couples therapy was more effective than solution-focused.

Communication imagery therapy improved the communication patterns of conflicted couples. These results are consistent with the research (Guven and Iskandar, 2023) (14). Because the couple realized that the inconsistent behavior of the wife was caused by her trying to satisfy the unfulfilled needs of her childhood, they acted in such a way that the wife’s needs were satisfied. Solution-focused therapy improves communication patterns. These results are consistent with the research (Zak et al., 2023) (32). Using the technique of exceptional questions, couples can recall times when their marriage was free of issues. Reflecting on these moments helps them understand the dynamics of their relationship during those problem-free periods. Communication imagery therapy was more effective in improving communication patterns than solution-focused therapy. Using the scene reconstruction method, they visualized a specific incident from their lives involving a disagreement. This process led them to understand that the root of these conflicts was the presence of unfulfilled needs. Both couples therapy improves communication patterns. Nevertheless, communication imagery therapy is more effective than solution-focused therapy. Counseling centers can benefit from these approaches to couple therapy to improve couple conflicts.

Traumatic concussion is one of the most essential causes of long-term disability worldwide. Studies show the prevalence of concussions in Iran and the world to be about 200 and 500 per 100,000 people, respectively. Surveys show that the majority of hospital visits for children aged 1 to 17 are classified as mild traumatic concussions, and with diagnostic estimates of 97%, it is one of the most common causes of damage to the central nervous system. The physical, cognitive, and emotional problems of these patients are known as post-traumatic syndrome. Studies have pointed to the risk of high prevalence of psychiatric problems in patients after concussions. Psychological disturbances such as anxiety and depression, with high prevalence, are the most widespread psychiatric disorders in patients after concussions. Today, the use of neuropsychological treatments, including the use of direct electrical stimulation of the brain from the skull (tDCS) for the recovery of patients with brain damage, has become prevalent. Moreover, studies have pointed out the role of psychotherapy in reducing the problems of children with mild concussions, including symptoms of depression and emotional regulation. The review of the conducted research shows that no study has been conducted to investigate the therapeutic interventions regarding mood complications caused by mild concussions in teenagers. As a result, this study aimed to compare the effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and psychodrama therapy in treating psychological issues in adolescents with mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI).

This study was semi-experimental with a pre-test-post-test design with a control group. The statistical population consisted of all teenagers with brain damage in Ardabil province, Iran, who visited Fatemi Hospital in Ardabil city during the years 2021-2022. These individuals had received a score of 13-15 on the Glasgow Coma Scale. Among the statistical population, 45 people were selected using the available sampling method (because the list of all people was unavailable). Then, they were randomly divided into three groups of 15 people (two experimental groups and one control group). The criteria for subjects to enter the study were informed consent, the age range of 12 to 17 years, and diagnosis of mild brain damage before participating in the study with a Glasgow score. Exclusion criteria for neurocognitive disorders such as epilepsy and seizures, multiple arteriosclerosis, specific impairment in verbal comprehension and expression, and intracranial implants such as shunts, stimulators, electrodes, and any other metal object near the head (such as the mouth and or the heart) that cannot be separated, were considered. After the briefing session, the researcher explained the research's purpose and the importance of honest participation from the subjects. They also provided details on how to answer the questionnaires. This was all done according to the specific schedule for visits to the psychotherapy office. The researcher referred, and then a pre-test was conducted for all three groups (two experimental groups and one control group). Psychodrama therapy in the form of 13-90-minute sessions (2 sessions per week) was performed, which is designed based on Moreno et al. (2000) (25) psychodrama techniques and methods. Additionally, transcranial electrical therapy consisted of ten sessions that were performed twice a week. The intervention of direct electrical stimulation was in such a way that points on the subject's head were determined, and the anode electrode was placed on the dorsolateral area of the left prefrontal cortex. Besides, the cathode electrode was placed on the dorsolateral area of the right prefrontal cortex for 20 minutes, and stimulation with 5/mA 1 was implemented. After completing the therapeutic intervention sessions, a post-test was conducted to gather data. This study utilized the active dose tDCS device from Active Tek, America, and the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21) developed by Lovibond and Lovibond (1995) (23) to collect the necessary data.

Forty-five teenagers with mild brain injuries (mTBI) in three groups (two experimental groups and one control group) participated in this study. The age of people in the transcranial brain stimulation (tDCS), psychovisual, and control groups was 53.3, 53.3, and 60%, respectively. Most people in the tDCS and psychovisual test groups were boys 80% and 60%, and in the control group, 53.3% were girls. The results of Table 1 show the F ratio of univariate covariance analysis for depression (7.101 and P<0.01), anxiety (11.067 and P<0.01), and stress (19.502 and 0.01). These findings show that the dependent variable of depression, anxiety, and stress is different between the groups. The results listed in table 2 indicate that there is a significant difference between the scores of depression, anxiety, and stress of the tDCS test group and the control group. The tDCS group shows a clear advantage. This method has successfully improved depression, anxiety, and stress scores in adolescents with mild brain trauma. A significant difference was observed between the depression, anxiety, and stress scores of the psychographic test group and the control group. This difference is in favor of the psychological group. Specifically, psychoanalysis has been able to improve the depression, anxiety, and stress scores of adolescents with mild brain trauma. No significant difference was found between the depression, anxiety, and stress scores of the tDCS group and the psychovisual group.

Cathodal stimulation (inhibition) of the right DLPFC decreases the processing of negative emotions, and anodal stimulation (increases the activity) of the left DLPFC increases the processing of positive emotions. Because the right hemisphere is more responsible for processing negative emotions, and the left hemisphere is more responsible for processing positive emotions. In group psychotherapy, children re-enact past traumatic experiences in their roles and get a chance to understand those painful events more correctly and, in this way, gain more control over the future. The emotional refinement that takes place in group psychotherapy helps them to overcome their fears and negative emotions. In the psychic display, the events of the past with its stresses and the future with its hopes are transferred to the present and resolved. However, these two methods of treatment can be used in drug and non-drug treatment centers to improve the psychological problems of adolescents with mild concussions.

To our knowledge, no study has yet used the auditory paradigm to investigate PT activation during L1-L2 sentence processing. Employing this experimental design is critical to our understanding of target/non-target language activation. Moreover, research in this area has mainly been limited to the neuroanatomical or pathological studies with little attention to bilinguals. Consequently, the extent to which the bilateral PTs are activated during simultaneous L1-L2 processing needs to be clarified. The present study aims to explore these critical issues.To address this study’s goal, the discussion critical revolve around the following questions:Q1. Do the left and right PT act differently for the auditory sentence processing?
Q2. Are L1 and L2 processed differently in the PL?

This study recruited healthy and young bilingual adults through social media via advertisements on top universities in Tehran, Iran. In total, forty-one subjects participated in the experiment. Five subjects were excluded due to technical problems. The final sample consisted of thirty-six (21 female, all right-handed). All participants were native speakers of Turkish who had learned Persian as L2 at the age of seven when entering school. Participants underwent an fMRI scan and completed an auditory grammaticality judgment task in the scanner. During the 21.5-min fMRI scan, participants were required to judge each sentence for grammatical correctness by pressing the button of a left (ungrammatical) or right (grammatical) response grip with the thumb while minimizing head movements. The task included four alternating rest and auditory sentence blocks. Each auditory sentence block had 32 runs and was bookended by 30-second rest periods where no stimuli were presented, allowing for hemodynamic baseline data collection. Correct and violated sentences were randomly intermixed within each block, but language blocks alternated in a fixed sequence. In total, 128 spoken sentences (50% in L1 and 50% in L2, with 50% violation per language) were used to assess syntactic processing in bilinguals. Images were acquired with a Siemens Prisma 3-Tesla scanner at NBML. The fMRI images were collected using an echo-planar imaging (EPI) sequence with a 20-channel head coil consisting of 430 volumes and 45 axial slices per volume (repetition time (TR)=3000 ms, echo time (TE)=30 ms, flip angle=90◦, matrix size=64×64, slice thickness=3 mm, field of view (FOV)=192 mm2, voxel size=3×3×3 mm3). Moreover, the high-resolution T1-weighted structural images were collected through a magnetization-prepared rapid gradient-echo (MPRAGE) sequence (TR=1800 ms, TE=3.53 ms, flip angle=7◦, matrix size=256×256, slice thickness=1 mm, FOV=256 mm2, voxel size=1×1×1 mm3, duration=5-min). The anatomical MPRAGE volumes were pre-processed following the brain extraction and used as anatomical references in the functional image processing co-registration steps using FEAT in FSL. The fMRI analyses were performed according to a standard pipeline comprising the following steps: motion correction and realignment, slice-timing correction, segmentation and normalization to the standard MNI template and spatial smoothing (6 mm full-width at half-maximum isotropic Gaussian), temporal filtering (with sigma=50.0 s), and exploratory ICA-based data analysis. The general linear model (GLM) was used to construct the statistical model on the BOLD response to perform the first-level analysis. Z (Gaussianised T/F) statistic images were thresholded using clusters determined by Z>3.1 and a (corrected) cluster significance threshold of P<0.05. A whole-brain analysis was performed to detect the mechanisms underlying syntactic processing in the bilateral PT. Then, PSC was extracted as an intensity measure in this region per participant according to the Harvard-Oxford Atlas implemented in FSL. All statistical analyses were conducted in IBM SPSS Statistics V26. Results Whole-Brain Results of Brain Activation Figure 1A visualizes the location of the PT. Figure 1B exhibits the patterns of whole-brain activation during the presentation of corrected and violated stimuli in L1 and L2 for each hemisphere. Greater left-hemispheric activation is detectable for the region of the PT (white circles) when comparing the left and right columns. ROI-based.

The results are depicted in Figure 2. The main factor of Grammaticality yielded a significant effect (F (1, 35)=53.296, P<0.001, ƞp2 =0.618), with a more significant effect for grammatical (3.712 PSC) as compared to ungrammatical stimuli (3.303 PSC). Furthermore, a significant main effect of the Hemisphere (F (1, 35)=25.451, P<0.001, ƞp2 =0.435), indicating that the left hemisphere (4.014) generated stronger PSC as compared to the right hemisphere (3.000). A significant Grammaticality×Hemisphere interaction (F (1, 35)=16.449, P=0.001, ƞp2 =0.333) indicated that the left hemisphere triggered a more significant effect for L1 stimuli (4.113) than for L2 stimuli (3.916) (t (35)=3.517, P=0.001), whereas in the right hemisphere there were no differences between L1 (2.970) and L2 (3.030) sentences (t (35)=-1.176, P=0.248). Finally, the Grammaticality×Language×Hemisphere interaction (F (1, 35)=7.961, P=0.008, ƞp2 =0.194) turned out to be significant. The analysis by the grammaticality factor showed that in the left hemisphere, L1-grammatical stimuli (4.244) engendered a larger effect than L1-ungrammatical stimuli (3.866) (t (35)=2.980, P=0.005). Similarly, L2-grammatical stimuli (4.161) engendered a larger effect than L2-ungrammatical stimuli (3.672) (t (35)=5.311, P<0.001). In the right hemisphere, L1-grammatical stimuli (3.204) engendered a larger effect than L1-ungrammatical stimuli (2.737) (t (35)=5.363, P<0.001). Similarly, L2-grammatical stimuli (3.214) engendered a larger effect than L2-ungrammatical stimuli (2.845) (t (35)=5.572, P<0.001). The analysis by language factor revealed that in left-hemispheric grammatical stimuli no differences were obtained for L1 (4.271) and L2 (4.161) sentences (t (35)=1.352, P=0.185), nor in the right-hemispheric grammatical stimuli for L1 (3.204) and L2 (3.214) sentences (t (35)=-0.132, P=0.896). In left-hemispheric ungrammatical stimuli, L1 stimuli (3.956) engendered a larger effect than L2 stimuli (3.672) (t (35)=3.326, P=0.002), whereas in the right-hemispheric ungrammatical stimuli, there were no differences between L1 (2.736) and L2 (2.845) sentences (t (35)=-1.889, P=0.067). The analysis by the hemisphere factor exhibited that in L1-grammatical stimuli, the left hemisphere (4.271) triggered a more significant effect than the right hemisphere (3.204) (t (35)=4.505, P<0.001). Similarly, in L2-grammatical stimuli, the left hemisphere (4.161) triggered a more significant effect than the right hemisphere (3.214) (t (35)=4.435, P<0.001). In L1-ungrammatical stimuli, the left hemisphere (3.956) triggered a more significant effect than the right hemisphere (2.737) (t (35)=5.573, P<0.001). Similarly, in L2-ungrammatical stimuli, the left hemisphere (3.672) triggered a more significant effect than the right hemisphere (2.845) (t (35)=4.275, P<0.001).

The current findings are essential in several ways. First, the present findings indicate a substantial overlap of the neuronal correlates for L1 and L2 in the PT, confirming our participants’ L2 high-proficiency. Second, our results support the contribution of the left PT as a computational interface in sentence processing. Third, the sensitivity of the right PT to the present auditory stimuli confirms its role in stimulus-driven auditory attention. Fourth, the higher activity of L1-ungrammatical stimuli as compared to L2-ungrammatical stimuli in the left hemisphere indicates that current bilinguals have chosen L1 (Turkish) as their base language, leading to more RT switch cost for L1 than L2, as well as increased cognitive control to reactivate L1 after L2 production. Fifth, L1-L2 similarities at the sentence level can facilitate the L2 processing.

Cognitive flexibility is a critical executive function that enables individuals to adapt to change and problem-solve in new situations. A key component of cognitive flexibility is the ability to think beyond conventional frameworks, allowing for alternative solutions when initial strategies fail. This capacity for flexible thinking forms the foundation for generating innovative and creative ideas.Cognitive flexibility is intricately linked to brain function. Previous research has established a strong association between cognitive flexibility, prefrontal cortex activity, as well as, frontotemporal region and fronto-parietal networks, which are involved in higher-order cognitive processes. Various neuroimaging techniques have been developed to assess brain function, with Electroencephalography (EEG) emerging as a particularly promising tool for evaluation and clinical applications. The EEG and Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) allow an investigation of brain large-scale networks with millisecond precision. Therefore, high-density ERPs can capture the brain dynamics of cognitive flexibility. Furthermore, this method is non-invasive, making it particularly suitable for studying mental disorders. The EEG monitors the electrical activity within the brain using small electrodes, measuring voltage fluctuations on the scalp. Studies have demonstrated that EEG waves can serve as a predictor of cognitive performance, specifically highlighting the relevance of theta and alpha frequency bands to cognitive functions.Cognitive flexibility plays a vital role in our daily lives, making it crucial to understand the factors that affect this ability. In this regard, Several types of biomarkers have been associated with cognitive flexibility. Neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin play critical roles in modulating cognitive functions, with variations in their signaling pathways linked to changes in cognitive flexibility. Electrophysiological measures, such as ERPs and EEG, offer insights into brain activity associated with cognitive processing. EEG is considered a physiological biomarker through signal processing. Additionally, genetic and epigenetic markers provide a deeper understanding of the underlying biological mechanisms influencing cognitive flexibility. This study aims to explore the neural correlates of cognitive flexibility based on electrophysiological biomarkers assessing among employees, thereby enhancing our understanding of how individual differences in brain function impact workplace performance and adaptability.

This study utilized a correlational research design. The target population included all employees (N=300) at a telephone counseling center in Tehran. From this population, 53 participants (43 female, 10 male) were selected through the purposive sampling method. Participants were required to be over 20 years old and have no history of brain damage or seizures to be included in the study.The study was approved by the research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Psychology and Education of Tehran University, Iran, under the ethics code IR.UT.PSYEDU.REC.1401.083. Cognitive flexibility was measured using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). Brain activity was recorded using the MITSAR 32-Channel EEG Amplifier. EEG data were collected from 19 electrodes positioned according to the international 10-20 system, with the average of the channels used as a reference. The sampling rate was set at 250 Hz. To remove electrical noise at 50 Hz, a 40 Hz low-pass filter was applied, and Independent Component Analysis (ICA) was used to eliminate artifacts from the EEG signals. After preprocessing, the power of theta (4-8 Hz) and alpha (8-12 Hz) frequency bands was calculated using the Welch method.During data collection, participants first completed the WCST. EEG data were then recorded while participants sat in a comfortable chair in a quiet room free from environmental distractions. The scalp was prepared with cleaning gels, and electrogel was applied to ensure proper electrode contact for accurate brain signal recording.Descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviation, were calculated. Partial correlation analyses using Bonferroni correction were conducted to examine the relationships between variables. All data analyses were conducted using SPSS-26 software.

Fifty-three people (43 women and 10 men), with an average age of 27.7 years for men and 27.07 years for women, participated in this research. The results revealed significant correlations between the number of categories completed indicator in the WCST,  the absolute power of theta in the T5 region (r=-0.471, P=0.0001) and a negative and significant relationship with the absolute power of alpha in the T5 region (r=-0.421, P=0.002). Furthermore, significant correlations were observed between the number of correct response indicator and the absolute theta power in the T5 region (r=-0.423, P=0.002). Partial correlation analysis revealed that, among the electrophysiological biomarkers of brain activity, alpha and theta activity in the left temporal lobe significantly related to cognitive flexibility indicators in adults.

In summary, the obtained findings highlighted significant relationships between brain waves and indicators of cognitive flexibility. This suggests that alpha and theta waves in this specific brain area may serve as valuable biomarkers for assessing cognitive adaptability.However, this research has certain limitations that should be addressed in future studies. One limitation is the disproportionate number of female participants compared to male participants, which may affect the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the study’s cross-sectional design limits the ability to draw causal conclusions and assess changes over time. Future research should include a more balanced sample and employ longitudinal approaches to further elucidate biomarkers’ role in cognitive flexibility.

Overgeneralized autobiographical memory is one of the most frequent phenomena among the patients affected by a variety of psychiatric disorders, including depression. Memory Specificity Training (MeST), as a method trying to modulate the specificity of autobiographical memory, has achieved promising outcomes in improving the specificity, as well as some of the psychiatric symptoms in the targeted patients. The main remaining concern about this intervention, which keeps it from clinical application, is its effects’ short durability and transient nature. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation method that has been proven to be efficient in the induction of neuroplasticity. Based on this hypothesis that the increased neuroplasticity may result in lasting changes in brain circuits, this study aims to investigate the effects of the addition of tCDS to MeST on the argumentation of the strength and durability of its effects on the specificity of autobiographical memory.

Forty-six patients affected by depressive disorders were included in the study through an introduction by the collaborator psychiatrist and considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria consisted of a minimum educational level of eighth grade, aged between 20 and 60 years old, and consent to participate. The exclusion criteria were life-threatening conditions, comorbid psychiatric disorders, developmental disorders, any kind of neurological disorders, bipolar depression, consumption of antipsychotic or/and anticonvulsant medications, and medical conditions that may interfere with mood and addiction. The diagnoses were confirmed by The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 (SCID-5).Patients were divided into two equal groups of twenty-three cases receiving six sessions of MeST in addition to tDCS versus sham stimulation. The stimulations lasted for 20 minutes through the online delivery of anodal current with the intensity of 2 milliamps versus sham stimulation, both on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.The participants were assessed using Beck’s Inventories for Depression and Anxiety and Autobiographical Memory Test, which presented one total index and three specific, general, and alternative sub-indices.

Two groups were homogenous, considering age, gender, marital status, and level of education, as well as baseline levels of depression and anxiety according to the scores of Beck’s Inventories. Overall, changes in the score of the indices related to cues demanding specific memories showed significant changes over time that lasted at the follow-up assessment, including specific, alternative, and total indices. The trend of changes between the two groups showed differences toward the hypothesis, but the statistical significance threshold reached only in the total index of the Autobiographical Memory Test. The similar trend in the two other indices related to specific memories, including the specific and alternative indices could not meet the statistical meaningfulness.The trend of changes in the general index of the Autobiographical Memory Test did not show a meaningful trend over time among the whole samples and was also completely independent of the grouping.Altogether, the results showed that, firstly, the intervention has been accurately targeted the specific feature of the autobiographical memory, and secondly, the changes are in absolute compatibility with the hypothesis of the study that claimed the addition of tDCS augments the strength and durability of effects induced by MeST on the specificity of autobiographical memory.

The results of this study have shown that the addition of tDCS to MeST may increase the effects on the autobiographical memory specificity of MeST and their durability. These outcomes, if confirmed with larger and further studies, can promise to bridge the gap between Memory Specificity Training and clinical application.Hence, designing and conducting studies investigating the combination of tDCS and/or other non-invasive brain stimulation modalities and MeST. Such studies should investigate the improvement of the strength and durability of the outcomes at cognitive and clinical levels in the induction of lasting ameliorative effects in patients affected by depressive and other psychiatric disorders that accompany overgeneralized autobiographical memory.

Childhood is considered as a pivotal period for developing fundamental cognitive skills (1). Research indicates that the first five years of a child's life are critical for cognitive skill development (2). Among the essential abilities necessary for learning in preschool children is attention. Attention is conceptualized as an integral component in all cognitive processes (3). Studies suggest that, like other skills, attention can be enhanced through education and practice (9). An example of an approach to improving cognitive structure is attention training using the Sohlberg and Mateer 2001 method (10). These exercises aim to address deficiencies in attention dimensions through specific attention exercises, thereby enhancing attention-related abilities, including visual perception in children (12). Visual perception is the process of integrating sensory-based data from experiences to make accurate judgments about objects’ size, shape, color, and spatial relationships (13). Recognizing the role of education in preventing learning difficulties in preschool children and the importance of providing timely preschool education to prevent such problems, this research aimed to develop an educational package on attention and concentration and assess its effectiveness on the visual perception of preschool children.

The present study employed an experimental design with pre-test and post-test control groups and a follow-up period. The statistical population included preschool children aged five to six in Tehran, Iran, who were enrolled in preschool centers in the years 2022-2023. Sampling was conducted by randomly selecting District 10 among the educational districts, and two preschools from this district were randomly chosen one as the experimental group and the other as the control group. Twenty students were randomly selected from each preschool, totaling 40 participants in the research. The primary objective was to investigate the validity and reliability of the “Attention and Concentration” educational package developed and its effectiveness on the visual perception of preschool children. The following four stages were undertaken to achieve this:First Stage: Conducting literature studies and reviewing the research premise.Second Stage: Designing an educational exercise package to improve visual perception and assess content validity. Content validity was evaluated using the Lawshe method, with supervision from 10 experts in the field of executive functions. Content validity ratio (CVR) andcontent validity index (CVI) were assessed, and the content was modified based on expert opinions.Third Stage: Pilot program developmentTen students available at the time participated in a 30-session training program, each lasting 1 hour per day and conducted three days per week. Upon re-evaluation, the session count was adjusted to 20, maintaining the same duration and frequency.Fourth Stage: Implementation of educational intervention Before the intervention, both the experimental and control groups underwent a pre-test using the TVPS visual perception test. Subsequently, the educational program was implemented for the experimental group, consisting of 20 sessions lasting 1 hour per day, conductedthree days per week. The control group did not receive this educational intervention. After completing the program, the TVPS test was administered again to both groups. A follow-up test was conducted after a 2-month interval from the pre-test, where students from both groups completed the TVPS questionnaire. The collected data was then analyzed.

In the first stage, ten experts assessed the content validity of the attention and concentration educational package, confirming its adequacy through CVR and CVI. Therefore, the validity of the educational package was established. Descriptive statistics, including mean, standard deviation, and skewness, were examined for both the experimental and control groups to describe the average performance and dispersion of participants’ scores in visual perception variables.In the experimental group, visual perception showed an increasing trend from pre-test (80.8) to post-test (85.11) and follow-up (87.12). However, in the control group, the mean visual perception scores decreased from the pre-test (70.17) to the post-test (60.01), and follow-up showed a mean of 59.95, indicating a decreasing trend.After ensuring assumptions such as the continuity of the dependent variable, normality of data distribution, homogeneity of covariance among groups, and independence of individuals, a mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted (within-subjects factor and between-subjects factor). The visual perception score variable was analyzed across three levels (pre-test, post-test, and follow-up) and two groups (experimental and control).Mauchly’s sphericity test was employed to verify the homogeneity of covariances. As the calculated Mauchly’s sphericity value was less than 0.05 (0.008<0.05, χ² (2)=59.9, W=77), indicating a violation of the assumption of covariance homogeneity, the correction methods such as epsilon estimation or multivariate tests were considered.The summary of within-group ANOVA analysis revealed a significant interaction effect between visual perception and group (P<0.001, F (15.191)=15.191). This interaction implies that different results were obtained from the combination of levels of visual perception (pre-test, post-test, and follow-up) and group levels (control and experimental). The between-group ANOVA analysis showed a significant difference between the two groups (P<0.001, F (38.127)=38.127), indicating a meaningful distinction between the experimental and control groups.The results of the mixed ANOVA showed that the main effect of time on visual perception is significant (F (2, 37)=71.14, P<0.001, η²=0.64). This result indicates that, regardless of the experimental and control groups, the mean visual perception scores significantly changed from pre-test to post-test and follow-up. Furthermore, the interaction effect between time and group is also significant (F (2, 37)=7.66, P<0.001, η²=0.27). This means that the changes in the mean visual perception scores across the three stages of pre-test, post-test, and follow-up differ significantly between the experimental and control groups. Finally, the main effect of the group is also significant.Table 4 indicates that the experimental intervention significantly impacted the experimental group. Finally, to determine which two periods among the mean scores of the three test phases differed, the Bonferroni post-hoc test was utilized. The results indicated a significant difference between pre-test scores and both post-test (P<0.001) and follow-up (P<0.001) scores, confirming the second hypothesis of the research regarding the effect of the attention and concentration educational package on the visual perception of children between the pre-test and post-test phases.

The primary aim of this research was to develop an educational package to enhance attention and concentration and determine its effectiveness on the visual perception of preschool children. As per the studies conducted, the first five years of a child's life mark a crucial developmental stage for cognitive skill growth, laying the foundational groundwork for a child's initial learning experiences during this golden period. One of the most vital and necessary factors influencing education and learning is attention. Attention is the process of directing processing resources toward a particular stimulus, playing a crucial role in advanced mental activities such as planning, problem-solving, and reasoning.This research focused on the content of an educational program based on Frostig’s perceptual approach and emphasized exercises related to attention, concentration, and visual perception. Exercises such as visual clarity, shape stability, spatial visual perception, shape discrimination against a background, visual completion, and visual-auditory memory sequence were highlighted. The research results distinctly indicate the effectiveness of the educational intervention. Additionally, the content validity of the educational package was confirmed by ten experts in the field of executive functions and learning disabilities. However, what ensures the sustained positive effects of cognitive interventions beyond the continuity of educational exercises is the role of age. Therefore, age plays a crucial role alongside the continuous practice in educational interventions. Ensuring the long-term effects of visual perception-related exercises relies not only on consistent practice post-education but also on adapting exercises according to the increasing age of children.

According to the paradigm presented by Borg (2006), teacher perception consists of a set of beliefs, knowledge, theories, images, assumptions, metaphors, concepts and approaches, principles, decision-making, and thinking. Furthermore, teacher cognition studies have examined three aspects of teachers’ curriculum: teachers’ interactive thoughts, decisions, and theories and attitudes of teachers (7).However, attitudes and mental states, in particular, are not easily accessible (11) because they are difficult to express, people lack awareness of those beliefs, and even people are unwilling to represent them for socio-political reasons (10). Hence, teaching-learning researchers use metaphors as a method, for example, apprenticeships (15) and professional development metaphors (17).Besides, conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) took these ideas one step further, arguing that metaphor is a perfectly common way of thinking that allows us to understand abstract areas of experience in terms of more concrete, embodied ones (22).Through the analysis of applied metaphors, only a study of the metaphor of knowledge was conducted on university professors (20). Therefore, this study intends to understand Persian language teacher's understanding of the concept of “knowledge” by examining the following questions;1. What are the metaphors of student-teacher representation of the concept of knowledge?2. What are the implications for teachers’ metaphorical representation of knowledge in the field of teaching and learning?

In this study, the researchers try to display the participants’ perceptions, and the meaning they have attributed to the events are examined in depth and the perspective about the phenomenon in an unbiased manner (28), which is less focused on researcher interpretations and more on describing participants’ lived experiences.The metaphorical phenomenon is used to further understand this descriptive design study. Thus, the research strategy is a case study because of the selection of a specific group of 24 available student-teachers. The interviews continue to achieve theoretical saturation. These volunteer students either completed or were in the final stages of their internship. Some questions were extracted from these interviews with the initial pilot study. After reviewing, a semi-structured interview form was developed in three sections (demographic, basic, and additional questions). Prior to the interview, participants were provided with general information about the research and asked to sign the consent form. One interviewer conducted all interviews, and each interview was recorded.The transcripts were interviewed and coded several times. Codes were classified according to Kovecses (32), and the information classification has been reviewed several times. For the analysis of personal metaphors, each metaphor was used as a whole unit of analysis because the meanings of parts of the metaphor can be understood only through the text. Finally, a comprehensive description of the metaphors was provided (29). Furthermore, due to the reduced bias, triangulation strategies were used to evaluate the validity, and the results were reviewed by other research professors who have long-term experience in teaching both university courses and in the phenomenology and quantitative analysis. The conceptual metaphor analysis method based on the Pragglejaz Group method developed a method of metaphor recognition called MIP- (Metaphor identification procedure). This method has several steps: 1- Reading the text and getting a general understanding of the text. Identify lexical units of text and then find the contextual meaning of each lexical unit within the text. B) Finding a more basic meaning (objectively sensory, physical, or semantic older) (32). In the trial version of MAXQDA oftware (which runs fast in finding and classifying data), the transcripts of the interviews were reviewed and categorized in such a way that the “important statements” highlighted sentences or quotes that showed an understanding of the concept of knowledge. This is the stage of horizontalization from Mustakas’s (29) perspective.

Data According to the first research question: What metaphors represent the concept of knowledge by student-teachers? After removing unrelated metaphors, 339 metaphors were confirmed. Besides, the mappings under the heading 16 are the most metaphorical frequencies in the categories: “Knowledge is objects”, “Knowledge is the container”, “Knowledge is the path”, “Knowledge is the place”, ”Knowledge is human", "Knowledge is high", "Knowledge is plant", "Knowledge is motion", "Knowledge is building”, “Knowledge is time”, “Knowledge is light”, “Knowledge is matter”, “Knowledge is health”, “Knowledge is food”, “Knowledge is power”, including object, container and path mappings, with metaphors of “obtain, acquire, and book”,  “transfer” and “Reach” was the most used.According to the second question of the research, what are the implications for teaching and learning in the metaphorical representation of knowledge by teachers? (Table 1).

From the cognitive linguistic point of view, the concept of knowledge is a complex and abstract concept in the minds of the student-teachers who have had minimal experience in the actual learning environment, respectively as object (acquisition, Obtaining), as container (transfer), as path (reach) has the most representation. Additionally, from a teaching-learning perspective, student-teachers represent knowledge from the individual’s mind and the learner, who has a passive and consuming role, through metaphorical perception. Therefore, the epistemological perspective of their predominant learning teaching can be regarded as instruction-ism. However, they also represented their perception of knowledge with other metaphors. Therefore, according to conceptual theory, perception, and understanding result from several mental spaces. Besides, in this study, little experience in teaching each have their own separate mental spaces, with metaphors arising from each mental space leading to a new genesis for each individual individually. Finally, the metaphorical analysis method has emerged among the student-teachers as the out-of-mind view of knowledge that will lead to knowledge-gathering rather than knowledge-building.In conclusion, in light of these findings and conclusions, teachers need to be aware of their metaphorical perception of teaching-learning, and it is better to review, modify, and improve their own views on the subject. In addition, future research can examine the concept of knowledge from a metaphorical perspective, which is needed in the larger community of Persian language teachers. Moreover, future studies will examine the conceptual blended theory by considering different subject areas arising from different experiences.

The design of university open spaces, as one of the fields of environmental architecture, doubles the need for comprehensive knowledge of how the environment affects the feelings of the users. Emotions that lead to the creation of an environment that fits the psychological needs of students, increasing enthusiasm and motivation for teaching and learning in them, and finally a sense of attraction and staying in the place. Therefore, the present study was carried out with the aim of presenting the optimal model for the design of the headmaster of National University of Skills, from the point of view of space users, with an emotional approach.

In this study, after identifying the psychological needs and demands of the target group, preliminary ideation, development of ideas, and examination of the technical points of the design of the academic wardrobe were evaluated. The statistical population includes five groups of students, staff and professors of the studied faculty, residents of the faculty and architecture professors of Babol city. The statistical sample was selected by purposive sampling method and for the purpose of evaluation, it was done using Kansey's engineering technique, using a questionnaire and using a semantic distinction method with a 5-point Likert scale in SPSS.23 software. The data were analyzed using mean and Pearson correlation tests.

The findings of the research indicate that the italic form, in 17 words out of 19 Kansi words, has the most positive and congruent relationship, which means that this plan, according to the interviewees, for the head coach of Technical and Vocational University- It has been evaluated as appropriate, also the word "special" among all the words has the most significant relationship with the correlation coefficient of 0.756 compared to the diagonal volume and the volume with the arc form among the designs in terms of sample It has been evaluated as inappropriate statistics.

The results indicate that the design with diagonal lines, which induces a sense of excitement, dynamism, creativity, curiosity, etc. in the audience, is liked by the target community. In line with the achievements of this research, it should be pointed out that the emotions of the audience will vary due to different designers; Therefore, in order to be successful in the design, the architect must put the perception and emotions of the audience as the road map of his design.