نشریه قرآن پژوهی خاورشناسان (قرآن و مستشرقان)
سال نوزدهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 36، بهار و تابستان 1403)

Since the Enlightenment, Western academia has consistently adopted a critical stance towards the role of religion in theoretical and practical politics, often marginalizing religion from scientific and major decision-making arenas. Consequently, Orientalists, when analyzing Islamic sources, particularly the Holy Quran, have raised several significant criticisms, including: 1. The purported absence of a governance model within the Quran; 2. The Quran’s alleged dependence on previous, ineffective models; 3. The perceived temporal limitations of the Quran’s political rulings; 4. The view that the Quran’s political approach is idealistic and impractical; 5. The assertion that the Quran’s political model represents an unsuccessful experiment. Given the importance of this discourse and its impact on contemporary Muslim intellectuals, this paper employs library research and a descriptive-analytical methodology to review and assess these theories. The findings of the research demonstrate that, in light of numerous Quranic references to political and governance issues, the Quran’s validity as an independent divine revelation, the enduring relevance of its rulings, the practicality and enforceability of its political directives and the existence of successful governance models based on the Quran throughout Islamic history, none of the aforementioned criticisms holds. Therefore, the foundational principles of religious governance derived from the Quran, as a superior political framework, merit serious consideration in contemporary contexts.

Alexander D. Knysh, author of the entry “Sufism and the Quran” in the Encyclopaedia of the Quran (Leiden), discusses the exegetical methodologies of Ghazali and Ibn Arabi. Knysh compares Ghazali’s interpretation (ta’wil) to the interpretation of dreams and visions, citing the apparent content of some of his books. This viewpoint is based on the opinions of older philosophers such as Avicenna (Ibn Sina), who saw Quranic interpretation as decoding its core meaning and essence. Knysh also criticizes Ibn Arabi of failing to give a coherent interpretative method, deviating from normal text interpretation reasoning, and using the Quran to support his notion of the oneness of being (wahdat al-wujud). By referring to the works of Ghazali and Ibn Arabi and employing an explanatory-analytical method, the author concludes that Ghazali, like other mystics, saw ta’wil as transcending the outward appearance to reach the inner meaning of the text while maintaining the validity of the verses’ outward meanings, rather than simply decoding the inner meanings. Furthermore, Ibn Arabi’s interpretations are meticulous, using both scientific and intuitive ways to interpret Quranic texts. In his interpretations, he draws on the principles and criteria of mystical exegesis and, using mystical insights, develops the thesis of unity of being. After a philosophical exposition of the theory and its ramifications, he utilized it to interpret unclear verses and resolve apparent inconsistencies in the Quran, distinguishing clearly between substantiated interpretation and subjective exegesis (tafsir biray).

Denise Masson, a Catholic Christian and contemporary French Quranic scholar, has worked to explore the secrets, intellectual connections, and divergences between the Quran, Jewish, and Christian traditions. Among her works, she wrote “The Quran and Its Comparison with Jewish and Christian Sacred Texts.” While acknowledging the many theological similarities between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, Masson occasionally criticizes Muslims of misinterpreting the teachings of the Quran and the Bible, particularly in terms of Trinity. Masson’s reasons for presenting the Trinity as divinely revealed are based on Old and New Testament scriptures, as well as Church Fathers’ sayings. The author of this paper has used a descriptive-analytical approach to analyze Masson’s claims. This essay’s primary goal is to evaluate and scrutinize her claims by looking at the Quran and logical evidence. The profound and profound teachings of the Holy Quran are the main source of the reasonable arguments that are discussed. The results of this study show that Masson’s arguments about the nature, essence, and irrationality of the Trinity are faulty and susceptible to serious criticism and challenge. This essay seeks to show that reason is wholly opposed to the theory of the Trinity and does not accept it in any way, as supported by the Quran and several reasonable reasons. The method of collecting information and data in this research has been library-based.

The character / personality of Imam Hossein (AS) and the historiography of the Ashura uprising have consistently been pivotal topics of discussion among Muslim scholars, particularly within Shia Islam, as the events of Ashura have profoundly shaped Shia history and continue to exert a significant influence today. Inspired by Imam Hossein’s (AS) stand against oppression, generations of Shia and Muslims have raised the banner of resistance against tyranny across the globe. This prominent role of the Ashura event, along with the extensive focus on Imam Hossein’s (AS) character in various historical, artistic, social, and political contexts, has led some Orientalists, who have shown interest in Shia studies for diverse reasons, to explore and analyze the character of Imam Hossein (AS) and the Ashura uprising from multiple perspectives. This article employs a descriptive-analytical approach, utilizing library research and content analysis, to explore the topic of “Orientalist Perspectives on the Analysis of Imam Hossein’s (AS) Character from the Era of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) to the Ashura Uprising.” It critically examines the reports and analyses provided by Orientalists, remaining faithful to their original content. The findings reveal that in the works of some Orientalists, such as Louis Massignon, Gabriel Danjiri, and Vechia Valieri, Imam Hossein (AS) is not restricted solely to the Ashura event. Their analyses span four distinct periods: 1) the time of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), 2) the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, 3) the period of Imam Ali (AS), and 4) the time of Imam Hassan (AS). However, some biases are evident in the discussions on Imam Hassan (AS) where Orientalists have attempted to fabricate conflicts between Hasan and Hossein (AS), distorting historical truths. Certain Orientalists have attributed the causes of the Ashura uprising to factors such as opposition to the hereditary caliphate of the Umayyads and the invitation extended to Imam Hossein (AS) by the people of Kufa. For example, Francisco Gabrieli, Antoine Bara, and Monsieur Marbin viewed the presence of women and children with Imam Hossein (AS) as indicative of his oppression. They identified key objectives of the uprising, including the promotion of virtue, freedom, resistance to humiliation, and the revival of Islam, thus presenting Ashura as a practical model for Muslims to confront and liberate themselves from oppressors throughout history. The evaluation of Orientalist theories concerning certain Quranic verses (such as the Verse of Mubahala, the Verse of Purification, the Verse of Affection, and Verse 37 of Surah Baqarah) — which Shia and Sunni interpreters assert were revealed regarding the Ahl al-Bayt (AS) and Imam Hossein (AS) — undermines the biased claims made by some Orientalists about differences between the characters of Imam Hassan and Imam Hossein (AS). This examination highlights errors or material biases, particularly related to the Ashura movement and uprising, demonstrating that some Orientalist perspectives, influenced by personal or ideological biases and lacking reference to authentic Islamic sources, have sought to distort the character of Imam Hossein (AS). The luminous Quranic verses revealed in his honor refuted such distortions.

Examining and analyzing the foundations and presuppositions of Pakistani Muslim Quranic scholars through an Orientalist lens, given the significant population and status of Muslims in Pakistan, constitutes a critical and essential discourse in the field of Quranic studies. Consequently, this study endeavors to scrutinize the foundational views of Orientalists concerning the Holy Quran and to critically assess their accuracy and validity. The importance and relevance of this topic motivated researchers to employ a descriptive-analytical approach, utilizing Quranic revelations and the exegeses of interpreters, to elucidate and critique the foundations of Orientalist Quranic studies and their impact on Islamic scholarship in Pakistan. The research findings reveal that the most significant and fundamental premises of Orientalists in Islamic studies, particularly in Quranic studies, include: questioning the divine nature of the Quran or proposing its human origin, providing scientific interpretations of Quranic miracles, viewing Islam as a religion confined to a specific ethnic group, perceiving Islamic rulings as pertinent only to a particular historical period, and invalidating Islamic narrations concerning the history of Islam and the Quran. These aforementeioned foundations of Orientalists have a substantial influence on their views, perspectives, positions, and conclusions and have profound implications for Quranic studies in Pakistan.

Raj’a, referring to the resurrection of certain deceased individuals during the arrival of Imam Mahdi (a.s.), constitutes a core belief within Shi’a Islam. Despite the attention given to various Shi’a doctrines by Orientalists, scholarly research on the concept of Raj’a remains limited. Etan Kohlberg’s article “Radja” in the Encyclopaedia of Islam published by Leiden represents one of the few independent works by Orientalists addressing this topic. This descriptive-analytical study offers a critique of the aforementioned entry. The findings from this research reveal multiple deficiencies in the article, including: the absence of definitions for both the literal and terminological meanings of Raj’a, the conflation of the terms “Rafidi” and “Shi’a,” an insufficient exploration of Quranic verses pertaining to Raj’a, incomplete in-text citations, inadequacies in conveying the prevalent understanding of Raj’a within Shi’a thought, and a lack of engagement with both theological and primary Shi’a sources concerning Raj’a. The results of this study are applicable in contemporary Orientalism studies as well as in Quranic and Shi’a theological studies.

The entry titled “Pain and Suffering,” authored by Margaretha T. Heemskerk, is published in the Encyclopaedia of the Quran Leiden. It has been organized into five sections, addressing the concepts of pain and suffering as presented in the Quran, in Hadith, and through the lenses of Mu’tazilites, Ash’arites, and mystics. This research employs a descriptive-analytical methodology with the objective of making the authentic teachings of Islam accessible to the public and clarifying the perspectives of Orientalists on religious doctrines, particularly those issues related to the Quran. The study critically assesses Heemskerk’s interpretations of pain and suffering, utilizing credible Islamic sources. The results suggest that although Heemskerk aims to represent Muslim perspectives, she neglects to cite essential Islamic sources, notably Shi’a tafsir and narrational literature. Furthermore, her interpretations stem from a superficial and limited examination of Quranic verses and aim to elucidate the theological beliefs of the Mu’tazilites, Ash’arites, and mystics regarding pain and suffering. The analysis concludes that Hemskerk’s compilation is unscientific, quoting incomplete statements and citing some obscure opinions, thereby lacking impartiality.

Many theories on the Holy Quran and the character of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) have been put forth by Orientalists. Among the Christian Orientalists who have attempted to portray the Prophet’s (PBUH) and the Quran’s positions toward the People of the Book in Mecca and Medina as erratic and non-principled is Joseph Durrah Haddad. According to him, the mission of the Prophet (PBUH) changed through five stages: Christian at first, then Jewish, then Israelite-Christian, then Arab nationalism, and lastly a global monotheistic. According to him, the Quranic invitation grew more broad as the Prophet’s (PBUH) experiences did. s a result, this study, which employs a descriptive-analytical method with a critical perspective and draws on library resources, aims to analyze and examine his point of view in order to elucidate the truth. It seeks to answer the following question: what are the weaknesses and shortcomings of the Prophet’s (PBUH) perspective, taking into account his actual and theoretical conduct as well as the Meccan and Medinan verses? The research findings show that, contrary to Joseph Haddad’s assertion, the Prophet’s (PBUH) sentiments and behaviors toward the People of the Book remained consistent and strategically defined during his 23-year mission in Mecca and Medina. While confirming the divine nature of their holy writings, he continually warned against textual distortions and aberrations. Consequently, the Prophet’s (PBUH) stances towards the People of the Book were a blend of wise attraction and repulsion, devoid of any emotional or sentimental actions, thus rendering Joseph Haddad’s view invalid.

One of the pivotal topics in Quranic studies and exegesis is the coherence of verses within the surahs. Numerous orientalists have scrutinized and assessed this matter, with the majority asserting that the verses within Quranic surahs exhibit a lack of coherence. Theodor Noldeke, in his work “History of the Quran,” is a notable advocate of this viewpoint and has extensively discussed the issue. The criteria posited by Noldeke regarding the perceived incoherence of verses, along with the critiques and evaluations of these criteria, constitute the primary focus of the present article. This study endeavors, employing a descriptive-analytical approach, to elucidate and critically appraise Noldeke’s criteria concerning the lack of coherence in Quranic verses. The conclusion drawn is that Noldeke’s criteria for incoherence are evident in both structural and content-related dimensions. Variations in verse length, style, rhyme, context, and inconsistencies in the verses’ content are categorized within these two dimensions. An assessment of these criteria reveals that stylistic variations serve as a distinctive characteristic of the Quran, with the intention of affecting human consciousness. The differences in rhyme and context arise from a commitment to meaning, while variations in verse length correspond to the condition of the audience. Furthermore, discrepancies in content illustrate the Quran’s unique approach to presenting concepts and teachings in a manner that is both mixed and integrated.

The Holy Quran was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) gradually over a span of 23 years. Historical records suggest that the Prophet was meticulous in the compilation and documentation of the Quran from its inception. Subsequent to his passing, discussions emerged among Muslim scholars concerning the methodology of the Quran’s compilation, an issue that continues to be debated in contemporary scholarship. There are two predominant interpretations regarding the compilation of the Quran: one posits that it was compiled during the lifetime of the Prophet (PBUH), while the other suggests that it occurred posthumously. Since the early 19th century, orientalists have also engaged in Quranic studies, offering diverse perspectives on the subject. The first orientalist to extensively examine this topic was Theodor Nöldeke, a German scholar, in his work “History of the Quran.” This was followed by numerous studies from both other orientalists and Muslim scholars alike in this domain. The current study’s key concern is how to categorize and typologize orientalists’ perspectives on the Quran’s compilation, as well as what objections can be thrown at their theories. Using a descriptive-analytical method, it was briefly concluded that orientalists have five prevalent theories about the compilation of the Quran, each with several flaws such as insufficient evidence, a lack of thorough research in Islamic sources, partial interpretation of sources, historical inaccuracies, and so on.

Understanding and critically evaluating the views of orientalists on Islamic knowledge is essential for Muslim academic communities. This paper, conducted using a descriptive-analytical method, critiques and reviews the entry “Mawla and Wala,” written by Sebastian Gunther in the Encyclopaedia of the Quran Leiden. Upon examining this entry, it becomes clear that the author, based on his intellectual principles—emphasizing the influence of local cultures on Islamic culture—has taken a good historical approach to the term and discussed its usage in the tribal Arab society before Islam. Positive aspects of the entry include its logical structure, examination of the term “Mawla” in several Quranic verses, consideration of some exegetical sources, and brief mention of meanings like authority, ownership, and guardianship in the Quran. However, significant weaknesses of the entry include the limitation of the term “Mawla” to meanings like dependent, protector, and supported member throughout the article, a biased report on the concept of “Mawla and Wala,” selective approach to the term’s usage in the Quran, failure to highlight the primary meaning of “priority in authority” and “guardianship,” lack of references in various parts of the article, reliance on Sunni sources without using multiple sources, particularly Shia sources, and the omission of the Wilayah verse. These shortcomings have resulted in the article lacking the necessary rigor and depth, and the author failing to fully convey the concept of “Mawla,” and consequently, the principle of Wilayah and its importance in Quranic verses and Shia beliefs.

One of the most important responsibilities of Quranic exegetes is to produce interpretations that, while being loyal to the original Islamic teachings, can persuasively address contemporary concerns and effectively spread the message in the global community. In this vein and with this goal, Dr. Seyyed Hossein Nasr and his colleagues have written a book titled “The Study Quran” on the request of HarperOne in the United States. This book contains interpretative comments of all Quranic chapters, based on 40 different tafsir studies Despite the author’s and the work’s great qualities, this book contains numerous bad concerns that must be addressed critically. The title “contemporary interpretation” is inappropriate for “The Study Quran” for two reasons: first, its characterization as tafsir is debatable, and second, it fails to meet the expectations of a contemporary text that addresses current issues and effectively propagates the Quran’s message. This article, written in a descriptive-analytical style, emphasizes the book’s positive qualities before criticizing it on both general and specific levels. General objections include the title’s inaccurate translation, the authors’ lack of experience in tafsir and hadith, the lack of key the Shia tafsir works, and the reliance on lesser Sunni tafsir sources and according to the specific objections, few critiques in the interpretation of Surah Al-Fatiha and some verses of Surah Al-Baqarah have been addressed in this article.

The Islamic Center for Strategic Studies, affiliated with the Holy Shrine of Hazrat Abbas (AS) in Najaf Ashraf, was established in the year 1434 AH with the aim of developing strategic plans and programs in the religious and cultural fields, relying on the past, studying the present, and looking to the future to improve the current situation and confront imminent dangers. The Oriental Studies section of this center, in addition to publishing the quarterly journal "Dirasat Ishtirakiyya," has authored and translated significant works in the framework of "Silsilat al-Qur'an fi al-Dirasat al-Gharbiyya." So far, seventeen volumes of it have been published. The achievements of this research include the introduction of Quranic studies in the West and its impact on contemporary Quranic studies, an examination of the trend of Quranic Orientalism in various countries around the world, the foundations, doubts, and Quranic viewpoints of Orientalists, the works and perspectives of famous Quranic scholars in the West, translations of the Quran, and Quranic encyclopedias by Orientalists. Finally, the collection "The Series of the Quran in Western Studies" was evaluated.