پژوهشنامه اصلاح گیاهان زراعی
پیاپی 51 (پاییز 1403)

Alfalfa is the most important leguminous forage that plays a key role in providing fodder needed for the production of human protein and dairy products. This plant has high nutritional value with high adaptability to different conditions. Alfalfa is recommended for sustainable agriculture because it has a deep root system and is a perennial plant, hence it can prevent soil erosion. Alfalfa is an excellent source for the biological fixation of air nitrogen. Researchers believe that 65% of the total nitrogen used in agriculture is through biological nitrogen fixation. It is very palatable and effective in the growth of livestock in terms of fodder quality and the optimal amount of energy from plants. In addition to protein, this plant is rich in vitamins, especially A, C, E, and K, as well as mineral compounds such as calcium. The distribution of the types of annual alfalfa at the global level, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, shows their resistance to water shortage and drought conditions. Alfalfa can be used as a successful plant to prevent desertification and the expansion of deserts. Among annual alfalfas, some species can adapt to 80-100 mm of winter rain for improvement and development in dry areas and desert pastures. However, most of Iran is suffering from water shortage, and one of the limitations of breeding for drought stress is the lack of resistance sources among crop genotypes. For this purpose, the evaluation of wild genotypes can be an important step in this direction.

This research was conducted on perennial alfalfa genotypes (one variety) and one-year alfalfa (nine samples) in a factorial experiment (alfalfa genotypes and stress as the first and second factors, respectively) with three replications in a block design. Samples of alfalfa were evaluated in normal and severe stress conditions in the greenhouse of the Faculty of Agricultural Technology, University of Tehran (Abureihan Campus) during 2012-2013. The factorial experiment was conducted based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The irrigation factor was water deficit stress including irrigation when soil moisture reached 30% of field capacity (severe stress), and the second irrigation level was normal conditions. Cultivation was carried out in May at a temperature of 22 °C, a photoperiod with 16 hours of light, and adequate humidity. Sixty medium plastic pots with an opening diameter of 15 cm, a height of 15 cm, and a capacity of 2 kg were filled with soil. Before planting, the seeds were broken by pulling soft sandpaper on their surfaces and performing stratification, followed by the seed germination test. Light irrigation was done one day before planting. Then, seven seeds were planted in each pot at a depth of 1 cm, and the soil surface was covered with cocopeat to protect soil moisture. The soil of the pots was watered with a sprinkler twice a day until the stress application. After reaching a height of 15 cm, 50% Hoagland's solution was used to feed the plants. After 55 days from the time of planting, the morphological traits, such as stem number, plant height, leaf number, internode number, internode length, leaf area, dry leaf weight, and dry stem weight, were evaluated at the vegetative growth stage. The weight method was used to adjust the soil moisture content. Excel software was used to draw graphs, and data were analyzed using SAS software. Means were compared using Duncan's method.

Drought stress negatively affected the evaluated traits. The differences between all evaluated genotypes were significant at the 1% probability level, revealing the existence of genetic diversity between genotypes that can be used for the selection of drought-tolerant genotypes in a subsequent study. The interaction effect of the genotype in stress conditions showed that the changes of different genotypes in different moisture conditions were not the same for most of the traits and genotypes. The heritability calculation results showed high general heritability for all the studied traits. The highest heritability belonged to the leaf dry weight trait (92.96 and 91.77 under full irrigation and severe stress conditions, respectively), and the lowest heritability was observed for the internode number trait (71.83 and 66.93 under full irrigation and severe stress conditions, respectively). The highest coefficient of variation belonged to the number of branches per plant trait (22.49) and the lowest value was observed for the leaf dry weight trait (8.86). In this study, Kermanshah130 and Azarbayjan175 were the most tolerant genotypes with the lowest decrease for leaf dry weight, stem dry weight, stem number, plant height, leaf number, and internode length.

Since the wild genotypes Kermanshah 130 and Azarbayjan 175 were the most tolerant genotypes in this study, they can be used as new sources of resistance in future breeding programs.

The Production of high-yielding and stable cultivars is the most important objective of crop breeding programs, including wheat. Wheat is one of the key crops cultivated in Iran. The final yield of each plant is determined by the genotype potential, the environmental effect, and the interaction effect of genotype × environment. Studies on genotype × environment interactions can help determine whether a genotype is stable in performance across a wide range of environments. Various methods (univariate and multivariate methods) have been introduced to evaluate the interaction effect, each of which examines the nature of the interaction effect from a specific point of view. The results of different methods may not be the same, but the best result is obtained when a genotype with different evaluation methods shows similar results in terms of stability. Univariate methods do not provide a complete view of the complex and multidimensional nature of genotype × environment interaction, therefore, the use of multivariate methods is suggested to solve this problem. Among the multivariate methods, genotype × genotype-environment (GGE) biplot methods are more important. Therefore, this study aimed to identify promising and stable top-performing lines of bread wheat for warm and dry climates using the GGE biplot method.

The adaptability and stability of 37 promising bread wheat lines were evaluated in 10 environments, along with three checks (Chamran2, Sarang, and Mehregan). The experiment was conducted using a randomized complete block design with three replications in two cropping seasons (2020-2021 and 2021-2022) at five research stations (Darab, Ahvaz, Dezful, Khorramabad, and Zabol). In the field, each plot was planted with a density of 450 seeds/m2. Each line was planted in plots with six four-meter lines with 20 cm line spacing. At the end of the growing season, six rows of five-meter spikes from each plot were harvested and threshed by a Wintersteiger combine. The weight of the obtained grains was measured by a digital scale and reported in hectares.Grain yield was determined using combined analyses of variance. The GGE biplot statistical method (genotype effect + genotype × environment interaction) was used to study the stability of genotypes in the studied environments. SPSSv22 software was used to analyze the experimental data using the analysis of the combined experiment. The data were analyzed with GGE-Biplot software using the GGE biplot graphic method.

The Smirnov-Kolmogorov test was conducted to examine residual errors in each environment. The results for each environment separately showed that the residual data were normal in all environments. Bartlett's test results for the environments indicated the homogeneity of error variances, allowing for a combined analysis of variance, which showed the significant main effects of the environment, genotype, and genotype × environment interaction for grain yield. The significance of the interaction effects of genotypes in this study showed that the genotypes responded differently in different environments; in other words, the difference between genotypes is not the same from one environment to another, and the stability of grain yield can be evaluated in these conditions. The environment, genotype, and genotype × environment interaction effects accounted for 70.12%, 1.24% and 9.57% of the total variation, respectively. The results showed that the three PCAs explained 54% of the total agronomical variability residing in the tested wheat genotypes. The first two PCAs accounted for 29% and 25% of the total variation, respectively. The GGE biplot analysis revealed four mega-environments and five superior genotypes. The polygonal diagram obtained from the analysis showed that the genotypes GT biplot arising G31،G21 ،G29, G27, and G32, which were located at the vertices of the polygon, were the superior genotypes. The average environmental coordinate of the GGE biplot analysis showed that genotypes G29, G28, and G16 had high grain yield and stability. The biplot of the correlation among environments revealed that the environmental vectors of Ahwaz and Zabol were near 90◦, thus these locations were different environments.  Based on the results, the environment of Zabol can be introduced as a favorable environment for selecting the best bread wheat genotypes.

Given the climate change in Iran, particularly in the hot and dry regions of the south, there is always a pressing need for using sustainable varieties with high performance. This study has clearly and easily aided in the identification of stable and superior genotypes graphically. Wheat breeders worldwide consider breeding varieties specifically adapted to different geographical and climatic agricultural regions. The general adaptability of varieties to several regions was identified in this study, indicating that the Zabol environment could be introduced as a suitable environment for selecting superior genotypes of bread wheat. Finally, it is recommended to select genotypes G29, G28, and G16 for further testing and promotion after seed multiplication and selection under farm conditions, eventually introducing them as new wheat varieties. The results obtained in this study demonstrate the efficiency of the GGE biplot technique for selecting high-yielding and stable varieties.

One method for selecting high-yielding cultivars is selection based on physiological traits. Investigating the seed growth and filling process and its effect on seed weight is among the basic research in breeding programs. The speed and period of grain filling are important traits affecting grain yield in wheat, which are affected by environmental conditions. Selection based on traits such as seed filling speed and period can be a good physiological criterion for cultivar evaluation. This research aimed to evaluate the yield, speed, and period of grain-filling in bread wheat genotypes under end-of-the-season drought stress conditions and to identify superior genotypes.

In this research, 18 bread wheat genotypes along with two control varieties were obtained from the Ardabil Agricultural Research Station and Natural Resources. An experiment was conducted in a completely randomized block design with three replicates in two conditions of full irrigation and drought stress at the end of the season in the Ardabil Agricultural Research Station. In the field, the genotypes were cultivated inside each plot of 4 × 3 m with a distance of 20 cm between lines and a density of 400 seeds/m2. Genotypes were cultivated in the research station in the fall of 2019. In stress conditions, irrigation was not applied from flowering to seed maturity, while irrigation was carried out three times (early flowering, mid-seed setting, and late seed setting) from flowering to physiological maturity in stress-free conditions. Grain yield traits, grain filling speed, maximum grain dry weight, length of grain filling period, and effective grain filling period were measured in this study.

The results of variance analysis for the evaluated traits showed a significant difference between environments and between genotypes in all evaluated traits. The genotype × environment interaction effect was also significant for all mentioned traits. The significance of the difference between genotypes indicates genetic diversity between the studied cultivars. Moreover, the significance of the interaction effect showed that the studied genotypes did not behave the same in two environments without and with stress. The seed-filling rate of all genotypes decreased under drought-stress conditions. The average seed-filling rates were 1.20 and 1.37 mg per day in the stressed and non-stressed environments, respectively. The length of the grain-filling period and the effective grain-filling period decreased with increasing the grain-filling speed. The length of the seed-filling period in the stressed environment was shorter by 2.31 days on average. The effective length and period of seed filling were directly related to the seed dry weight. The average yield of genotypes under stress conditions (594 g/m2) declined significantly compared to the non-stress environment (768 g/m2). On average, the length of the seed-filling period in the stressed environment (34.90 days) was shorter than that in the non-stressed environment (37.21 days). The greatest decrease in the effective length of seed filling was observed in genotype 5 (5.30 days). The longest seed-filling periods were recorded for genotypes 14 (41 days) and 12 (40.44 days) in stress conditions, and genotype No. 13 (43.21 days) in non-stress conditions. Genotype 3 showed the shortest seed-filling period in both stress and non-stress conditions. The correlation coefficients showed a negative and significant correlation between the speed and the effective period of seed filling in the stress (r = -0.358**) and non-stress (r = -0.404**) environments. A cluster analysis of the genotypes grouped them into three and four clusters in the stress and non-stress environments, respectively. The heat map of the distribution of genotypes grouped them into three clusters based on the traits studied in the stressful environment. Genotypes 19, 18, 3, 10, and 1 were in the first group, with a short effective seed-filling period and a higher filling speed, which was desirable due to the relatively better yield. The second group included genotypes 7, 4, 9, 17, 6, 5, and 8, with lower seed yields and short effective seed-filling periods. Finally, genotypes 13, 12, 2, 14, 11, 20, 15, and 16 were included in the third group, with lower values of speed and maximum seed weight and higher values  of effective seed-filling periods. Members of this group showed relatively good yields, which could be attributed to the length and long effective seed-filling period. Considering the importance of grain-filling processes to reach the desired grain weight, selection to increase the grain-filling speed and the effective long filling period can lead to more yields in stressful conditions.

A significant variation in traits was observed among the studied genotypes, indicating the existence of appropriate genetic diversity in the studied plant material. End-of-season drought stress negatively affected the final grain weight by reducing the speed and period of grain filling, eventually lowering the yield. In such conditions, selecting genotypes with higher seed-filling speeds can lead to the selection of drought-tolerant genotypes. However, the speed of seed filling and the effective period of seed filling alone cannot guarantee a high yield, and other factors affecting yield should be considered in the selection of drought-tolerant genotypes.

Soil salinity is regarded as a primary cause of damage and decrease in agricultural yields globally. Halophyte plants can withstand elevated levels of salt, which typically result in the destruction of other crops. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa, Willd), belonging to Chenopodiaceae, is a very tolerant plant to unfavorable environmental conditions that exhibits great tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Quinoa is an optional halophyte plant that can tolerate sea level salinity (40 dSm-1) and has a favorable economic performance in most areas of Iran with little annual rainfall (the country's average rainfall is about 250 mm) and cannot be cultivated due to soil salinity and drought. To explore the mechanisms of resistance to salt stress in quinoa plants, the impact of salt treatments at two different levels (6.9 and 13.8 dSm-1) and nine sampling intervals (ranging from zero to seven days) was studied in the Titicaca variety. This involved analyzing the ionic reactions and the expression of specific genes related to dealing with salt stress.

to study the ionic changes and reactions of some genes involved in salinity stress, the Titicaca genotype was planted under the effect of two salinity levels 6.9 dSm-1 (1:1 seawater:double distilled water) and 13.8 dSm-1 (sea water) along with a control in two replications with the factor of sampling time using factorial (time in nine levels and salinity in two levels) based on a completely randomized design. After applying salt treatments, leaf samples were collected at 6 hours and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 days after salt application. The accumulation of sodium and potassium ions along with the expression changes in four salinity-related genes, including Na+/H+ antiporter (NHX), Salt Overly Sensitive 1 (SOS1), Choline Mono Oxygenase (CMO), and Betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH), were evaluated in this research. The gene expression was assessed using the QRT-PCR technique with SyberGreen dye and the GAPDH reference gene.

The accumulation of sodium and potassium ions in leaves was impacted by salinity, and there was a significant increase in both levels of salinity at the 1% probability level. An increase in sodium ions was associated with the increased accumulation of potassium ions, indicating that the plant attempted to counteract the negative effects of elevated sodium ions resulting from stress conditions. Additionally, by elevating the salinity level from 6.9 to 13.8 dSm-1, the potassium ion to sodium ion ratio started to increase from the third day after stress. This could serve as a crucial physiological mechanism for enhancing the plant's salinity tolerance and promoting higher productivity in saline environments. With increasing the duration of stress and the salt concentration, the activation of all four genes associated with salinity was altered in response to the buildup and existence of ions within the cell. Based on the current research, the activation of the NHX gene in quinoa was observed from the initial day under both salinity stress levels. The activation of the SOS1 gene was escalated as the stress persisted in the subsequent days. In this context, the expression pattern of SOS1 demonstrated a rise at 6.9 dSm-1 on the initial, subsequent, and third days. On the third day of stress, the activity of genes related to glycine betaine production rose at both stress levels. First, the CMO gene showed increased activity, followed by an increase in the activity of the BADH gene.

Based on the findings of this study, the quinoa crop, similar to other salt-tolerant plants, employs various strategies (such as ionic balance and alterations in gene expression) to endure saline conditions. The research findings indicate that there was a notable rise in the NHX1 gene expression following the introduction of the sodium ion into the cytosol and receipt of the stress signal. Upon this heightened expression, the plant attempted to chelate sodium ions to mitigate the impact of stress in the vacuole. Additionally, it appears that the plant utilizes the SOS1 gene to initiate an alternative pathway for achieving tolerance and cell stability. This involves releasing sodium ions to the root area, storing them in vacuoles, preventing their build-up in the cytoplasm, and regulating sodium transport over long distances between the roots and leaves. The process also involves the selected loading of sodium ions from the xylem vessels. On the third day, there was a rise in the expression of the CMO gene at the same time as the notable rise of sodium ions in the cytosol, indicating the plant's effort to achieve osmotic equilibrium in the cell by generating glycine-betaine osmolyte and activating the proline synthesis pathway. Alternatively, the plant seeks to preserve the ionic equilibrium by boosting potassium intake and enhancing the stability of the K+/Na+ ratio to mitigate the detrimental impact of stress. Because of inadequate research on this crucial plant, the results of this study can serve as an appropriate blueprint for future research.

Bread Wheat is the most extensively cultivated wheat and one of the four major crops in the world that constitutes the principal food of more than 30% of the world population. Biotic and abiotic environmental stressors are major factors limiting plant growth and productivity, which play a significant role in determining the yield and production potential of plants by affecting morphological, physiological, biochemical, and molecular processes. Among the abiotic stresses, the deficiency of micronutrients in the soil is important. Micronutrients regulate food metabolism in humans, and their deficiency endangers human health. Iron and zinc are essential micronutrients for human health and cofactors of many vital enzymes involved in many human metabolic processes. In plants, iron is the most required element among all micronutrients. It is a part of the catalytic group of many oxidation and reduction enzymes and is required for chlorophyll synthesis. To facilitate the adequate uptake and prevent excessive absorption of iron, plants have developed a balanced network to regulate the uptake, use, and storage of ions. In fact, such adjustment processes depend on genes that regulate ion homeostasis in plants. Due to the existence of a large allohexaploid genome and technical challenges in wheat transformation, few genes involved in iron and zinc uptake, transfer, and storage have been characterized functionally. Considering the important role of ZIP proteins in iron uptake efficiency, investigating the expression of the ZIP genes in Fe-efficient and -inefficient bread wheat cultivars can be effective in improving Fe-efficient cultivars in this valuable crop. Therefore, this research aimed to evaluate the expression of ZIP3, ZIP6, and ZIP7 genes in the leaves and roots of two Fe-efficient and -inefficient bread wheat cultivars at different growth stages under iron deficiency stress.

This research was carried out in a completely randomized design (CRD) based on a factorial experiment with three replications in the research greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture, Urmia University. The first factor was two Fe-efficient (Pishtaz) and -inefficient (Flat) bread wheat cultivars, the second factor was two soil iron levels (iron deficiency and sufficiency, respectively, 1.4 and 10 mg/kg of soil), and the third factor was two sampling stages (vegetative and reproductive, respectively, one month after planting and 30% heading). To evaluate the expression of genes, the roots and leaves of the plants were sampled at each growth stage. The seeds were obtained from the Iranian Seed and Plant Improvement Institute, disinfected with 1% hydrogen peroxide, and planted at a depth of 4 cm in the soil. The plants were irrigated using distilled water to the extent of field capacity during the growing period.

The results of variance analysis of the relative expression of all three studied genes showed that the interaction effect of cultivar × organ × sampling stage was significant at the probability level of 1%. The comparison of the means for the cultivar × organ × sampling stage interaction effect revealed the highest ZIP3 expression in the roots of the Fe-efficient cultivar (Pishtaz) in the vegetative and reproductive stages. The relative expression of this gene was higher in the roots of the Fe-inefficient cultivar (Falat) than that of the Fe-efficient cultivar (Pishtaz). However, the Fe-inefficient cultivar (Falat) showed the highest relative expression increase in the leaf in both reproductive and vegetative stages, but the difference in the gene expression level in the leaf between the two growth stages was not statistically significant. The lowest gene expression level in the leaf belonged to the Pishtaz cultivar. The comparison of the means of cultivar × organ × sampling stage for the ZIP6 gene indicated an increase in the relative expression of this gene in the roots of the Fe-efficient (Pishtaz) and -inefficient (Falat) varieties in the vegetative and reproductive stages, respectively. The comparison of the means of cultivar × organ × sampling stage for the ZIP7 gene indicated the highest relative expression of this gene in the roots of the Fe-efficient cultivar (Pishtaz) at the vegetative stage. The relative expression level of this gene in the root of the Fe-efficient variety in the vegetative stage was significantly higher than that in the reproductive stage. In both vegetative and reproductive stages in the leaf, the increase in gene expression was higher in the Fe-inefficient cultivar.

The increased ZIP3 expression in iron deficiency conditions in the roots of the Fe-efficient cultivar at the vegetative stage demonstrates the possible role of this gene in Fe uptake from the soil and its transfer to the aerial parts of the plant in the early growth phase. The ZIP6 gene `was expressed in both roots and leaves throughout the entire growth period of the plant. However, the expression level of this gene increased with the age of the plant. Therefore, the ZIP6 gene is probably responsible for Fe uptake and transport to different organs throughout the entire growth period of the plant and plays an important role in preserving iron in iron deficiency conditions. The ZIP7 gene is expressed in both leaves and roots in iron deficiency conditions, but the level of expression is higher in the roots of the Fe-efficient variety during the vegetative stage. This gene may be involved in iron uptake from the soil and its transfer to aerial organs.

In arid and semi-arid regions, biotic and abiotic stresses can directly or indirectly lead to restrictions and decreased growth of different plants. In these areas, salinity stress is one of the major challenges facing agriculture and crop production that causes huge damage to crop yields annually. The amount of salinity in the soil results in plant growth limitation, and increased soil salinity disrupts water and essential nutrient absorption for the plant and reduces plant growth, which can then lead to plant death. Reduced root growth and development, decreased nutrient absorption, increased likelihood of allergies to diseases and pests, decreased yield, and final product quality (e.g., nutrient deficiency), and increased toxic elements, are among the negative effects of salinity on plants. Various factors are involved in the creation of salinity, the most important of which can be climate change, source rock weathering, improper irrigation, drought, excessive consumption of fertilizers, and reduced seawater levels. Following climate change, these damages are on the rise every year. Due to the increase in population growth, demand for food production is increasing day by day. Wheat is known as the major grain in the supply of nutritional needs in the world, hence its sustainable production is of paramount importance. Salinity is recognized as an important factor in reducing wheat yield, and it may increase the accumulation of harmful salts in the plant tissue, which can lead to physiological damage and decreased plant growth. The effects of soil salinity vary depending on the amount of salinity, the type of salinity, and the type of wheat. One way to prevent the negative effects of salinity is to use salinity-resistant wheat cultivars. The range of diversity in relation to salt stress tolerance in different plants, especially the wheat plant, depends on various factors such as plant genotype, duration of stress, and plant growth stage. The seedling stage in wheat is one of the important stages regarding tolerance to salt stress. This study aims to investigate the response of spring wheat cultivars in the seedling stage to salinity stress.

In the present study, the reaction of 64 Iranian spring wheat genotypes at the seedling stage under normal conditions and 12 dS/m salinity stress was investigated in two replications in a simple lattice design at the research greenhouse of the Faculty of Agriculture, Urmia University in 2021-2022. In this study, in the four-leaf stage, salinity stress was applied gradually for two days. The measured traits were chlorophyll (SPAD), canopy temperature, shoot length (SL), root length (RL), seedling length (PL), shoot potassium content (KS) ), root potassium content (KR), shoot sodium content (NaS), root sodium content (NaR), shoot potassium to sodium ratio (KNaS), root potassium to sodium ratio (KNaR), root volume (RV), leaf area index (LAI), radicle fresh weight (FWR), radicle dry weight (DWR), relative leaf water content (RWC), shoot fresh weight (FWS), shoot dry weight (DWS), seedling fresh weight (FWP), weight dry matter of seedlings (DWP). The data of the studied traits were obtained in a random complete block design. PROC GLM was used for the analysis of variance (ANOVA) in SAS 9.4 software. The correlation was examined using PROC CORR and decomposition into factors using PROC FACTOR. The figures were grouped using the gplots software package and the biplot diagram was drawn with the factoextra software package in the R 4.1 environment. The MANOVA statement in PROC GLM was used in SAS 9.4 software for multivariate variance analysis.

Based on the results of ANOVA, statistically significant differences were observed between the tested cultivars based on the traits studied in the seedling stage, including FWP, DWP, FWR, DWR, FWS, RWS, and (PL). In both normal and salt stress conditions, DWP showed the most significant correlation with FWP, DWS, and DWR. Under the salinity stress conditions, FWS was significantly correlated with DWS, FWP, and DWP. Based on factor analysis, the studied traits in both normal and salinity stress conditions were grouped into seven factors, which explained 77.93% and 76.44% of the total changes in normal and salinity stress conditions, respectively. Using cluster analysis, cultivars under both normal and salt stress conditions were grouped into three clusters.

Based on the biplot results of factor analysis and cluster analysis, Maron, Darya, Shiroodi, Moghan 3, Darab 2, Roshan, Pishgam, and Pishtaz cultivars are introduced as favorable cultivars. Chamran, Bam, Alborz, and Maroodasht cultivars are categorized as unfavorable cultivars that can be used in further wheat breeding programs.

Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik) is a cool season seed legume and a good source of nutrients needed by humans, including protein, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals. The production of high-yielding and high-plant-height varieties is one of the lentil improvement goals. For this purpose, it is necessary to collect and evaluate germplasm as a base population, along with identifying and utilizing lines with high potential and other desirable traits. The environment has a significant effect on the crop production of this plant. Therefore, direct selection is important for seed yield. Since seed yield depends on the yield components, the yield and its components must be regarded as a group at the selection time to improve the yield. To properly increase yield and economic efficiency, we need to collect desirable lines with desirable genes and transfer these genes to cultivated lines to produce desirable cultivars. Consequently, sufficient information is necessary on accessible genetic materials, which is possible by evaluating different traits.

To assess the model of the simultaneous effect of traits on the lentil seed yield for determining the selection procedure in native lentil lines of Zanjan province, an experiment was conducted in the research farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Zanjan University, during two cropping years 2017-2018 and 2018-2019. In both years of the experiment, improved cultivars, such as Kimia, Sabz Kohin, Gachsaran, Maragheh, and Bilehsavar, were used as control cultivars. The first-year experiment was conducted in an augmented design based on a randomized complete block design with 200 lines. Each experimental unit included a 1-m row. The distance between the rows was 25 cm, the distance between plants in a row was 5 cm, and the planting depth was 5 cm. Two rows of Kohin-Sabz lentils were planted as margins at the beginning and end of each block. Due to obtaining a sufficient amount of seeds from the first year, the second-year experiment was carried out as a simple lattice design with two replications and larger experimental units for the lines selected from the first year. Each experimental unit included two 1-m lines. The distance between the rows, the distance between plants in a row, and the planting depth were similar to the first-year experiment. Two rows of Kuhin green lentils were planted as margins at the beginning and end of each incomplete block. The measured traits included phenological and morphological traits, yield, and yield components per plant and unit area.

Among the studied traits, the highest coefficient of variation was obtained for the number of seeds, biomass, straw yield, and seed yield. The coefficient of correlation showed that the number of seeds and seed yield were positively and significantly correlated with phenological traits, such as the podding period, physiological maturity, and seed-filing period, as well as morphological traits such as plant height and first branching height, respectively. A positive and significant correlation was observed between the number of seeds and seed yield with the number of pods per plant and biomass per plant. In regression analysis by the stepwise method, plant height was the first trait entered into the model, which could explain 46.8% of the variation related to seed yield per plant. Then, the number of seeds per plant, 1000-seed weight (TSW), straw yield per plant, and the seed-filling period were entered into the model, respectively, which could totally explain 67.5% of the variation related to seed yield per plant. The results of the path analysis showed that the number of seeds per plant had the most considerable direct and positive effect on seed yield, followed by the direct effect of the TSW, plant height, and seed-filling period, respectively. Therefore, these traits would be recommended as the most important and significant traits in the indirect selection of seed yield in lentils. Most of the indirect effects of the traits on seed yield were positive, and the most indirect effects were related to seed-filling period, plant height, and straw yield through the number of seeds per plant. Besides, the seed-filling period through plant height and the plant height through the number of seeds had an indirect effect on seed yield. In factor analysis based on principal component analysis and varimax rotation, six factors explained about 76% of the data variation. The first three factors included the most considerable volume of data variation. The first factor was identified as phenology and height, and the second and third factors were identified as yield and yield components. Results showed that the selection based on these factors would lead to the genesis of the high-yield lines.

The highest coefficient of variation belonged to these traits: the number of seeds, biomass, straw yield, and seed yield. Seed yield per plant had a positive and significant correlation with the phenological traits of the podding period, seed-filling period, and physiological maturity, as well as morphological traits, namely plant height and the height of the first branch. The number of seeds per plant had the most direct effect on seed yield, followed by TSW, plant height, and seed-filling period. Therefore, these traits can be considered the criteria for selecting superior lines. According to the factor analysis results, six factors could justify 77.306% of the data variations.

Lentil (Lens culinaris Medik.) is one of the main food legume crops in Iran, where it is grown as a rainfed crop in spring in cold regions. One of the obstacles of spring cultivation in cold regions is drought stress exposure at the end of the growing season in the late cultivation date, which dramatically increases null pods and decreases seed yield. Until introducing autumn cultivation, specific, and cold-tolerant lentil varieties, the only solution for this problem is to find ways to deal with the damage of drought stress. Nanotechnology serves as a precursor of the new industrial revolution that has the potential to bring alteration in agricultural production. Nanoparticles (NPs) have been applied for enhancing seed germination, growth, physiology, productivity, and quality traits of various crops under normal or stressful conditions. Therefore, to reduce the negative effect of drought stress at dryland conditions in late cultivations, the effect of ZnSO4 and Fe2O3 NPs at 0.5% and 1% were studied on the agronomic, physiologic, root traits, and antioxidant system of lentils in the cold region.

A field study was carried out at the Dryland Agricultural Research Center (DARI) in Maragheh during the 2019-2020 growing season. Experiments were conducted in rainfed conditions using a complete block design with three replications. Treatments were no spray, 0.5% nano ZnSO4, 1% nano ZnSO4, 0.5% ZnSO4, 1% ZnSO4, 0.5% nano Fe2O3, 1% nano Fe2O3, 0.5% Fe2O3, and 1% Fe2O3. Treatments were applied at two stages (10 days after the plant first establishment and 50% of flowering) in the early morning and not on windy days. The Bilesavar variety, which is suitable for spring cultivation in cold regions, was used in this experiment. Plant height, relative water content (RWC), cell membrane stability (CMS), canopy temperature, and the normalized difference in the vegetative index (NDVI) were recorded during the growing season. The seed yield and 100 seed weight (HSW) were calculated after harvesting. The activity of ascorbate peroxidase (ASP), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POX), and the contents of proline, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids were calculated in gathered leaf samples during the growing season.

Differences between treatments were significant for RWC, CMS, canopy temperature, NDVI, and seed yield at 1%, and for HSW at 0.5%. The highest seed weight was observed in using nano Fe2O3 0.5%, and the lowest belonged to no spray treatment. The lowest RWC, CMS, and the highest canopy temperature were recorded in no spray treatment. Analysis of variance results showed that differences between treatments for all biochemical traits were significant at the 1% level. Chlorophylls a and b contents increased using NPs, and the highest level belonged to 1% nano ZnSO4 treatment and as expected the lowest calculated in no spray treatments. The highest carotenoids, and the activities CAT, ASP, GPX, and SOD were observed in 1% nano ZnSO4 treatment. The lowest activity of these enzymes as well as the highest H2O2, proline, and malondialdehyde (MDA) belonged to no spray treatment. According to the results, seed yield was significantly correlated with CAT (0.81), GPX (0.88), SOD (0.80), H2O2 (-0.82), MDA (-0.90), proline (-0.89), chlorophyll a (0.83), chlorophyll b (0.64), carotenoids (0.74), HSW, (0.50), NDVI (0.86), canopy temperature (-0.76), RWC (0.84), and CMS (0.95) at the 1% level. The highest root length was respectively measured in 1% nano ZnSO4, 0.5% nano ZnSO4, 0.5% nano Fe2O3, and 1% nano Fe2O3. NPs had no effect on average diameter while applying 1% Fe2O3 led to the highest effect on the root volume. Root surface showed the highest increase by using 1% nano Fe2O3, 0.5% nano ZnSO4, and 0.5% nano ZnSO4. The highest root length belonged to 1% nano ZnSO4 and 0.5% nano ZnSO4 while this trait was lowermost in no spray treatment.

According to the results, 1% Fe2O3 exerted the highest effect on agronomic and physiological traits while 0.5% ZnSO4 was effective on the antioxidant system, and ZnSO4 NPs positively affected the root length and average diameter. While Fe2O3 NPs were effective in improving the root surface area and volume.

About 30% of the world's sugar needs are provided by sugar beet and sugar cane. Many biotic factors, such as pests, diseases, and weeds, decrease production and damage sugar beet fields. To bring sugar beet production to its real potential and maintain it at this level, it is necessary to identify biotic stress-causing factors, determine their individual role in reducing the yield, and investigate their management and control methods. One of the pests of sugar beet is the root aphid that settles on the secondary roots and causes dwarfism and wilting of the plants by feeding on plant sap. It also causes a decrease in root weight and a 30-36% decrease in sugar content. Due to the special conditions of the aphid's life under the soil, the effect of the aphid’s white wax secretions on soil non-wetting by the poison solution, and the lack of a suitable systemic poison, the use of chemical poisons in the form of soil-water is not recommended in controlling this pest. Therefore, the most effective method for managing this pest in sugar beet fields is to use resistant and tolerant cultivars. Therefore, this research aimed to evaluate the resistance of domestic and foreign cultivars to this type of aphid. This study also investigates the effect of this pest on their quantitative and qualitative yields to use them or their ancestors in future breeding programs to produce resistant cultivars.

The resistance to root aphid of eight sugar beet cultivars (Asia, Arta, Dena, Shokoofa, biopolymerized Shokoofa, Nika, Palma, and BTS505) and the effect of this pest on their quantitative and qualitative yields were evaluated in a pilot experiment based on a randomized complete block design with four replications in the West Azarbaijan Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Center, agricultural education center of Miandoab city, in 2023 crop season. To this aim, sugar beet root aphid was sampled by harvesting 20 sugar beet roots (four replicates per cultivar) in the middle of September. The samples were grouped into four resistant, semi-resistant (tolerant), sensitive, and very sensitive groups based on the percentage of sugar beet roots infected with aphids.  Traits related to quantitative and qualitative yields were also measured after harvesting.

The results of the analysis of variance showed that the effect of the cultivar was significant on all measured traits (p ≥ 0.01). The highest and lowest values of the genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation belonged to the percentage of aphid-infected roots (46.52% and 46.73%, respectively) and the sugar extraction coefficient (4.55% and 4.69%, respectively). Based on the results from mean comparisons for the cultivars, the highest and lowest values of the root yield trait was measured in BTS505 and Palma foreign cultivars with 82.35 and 62.81 t.ha-1, respectively, which were placed in two statistical groups. However, the average root yield of the Palma cultivar with the lowest root yield was not significantly different from the Shokoofa cultivar (64.41 t.ha-1). The highest sugar content trait belonged to the BTS505 foreign cultivar (16.86%), and the lowest values were obtained for the Palma foreign cultivar and the Shokoofa domestic cultivar (12.65 and 13.01%, respectively). No significant differences were observed between the domestic and foreign cultivars in the averages of the root yield trait (69.56 and 72.58 t.ha-1, respectively) and sugar content (14.25 and 14.75%, respectively). This indicates the genetic progress of the newly introduced domestic hybrid cultivars in terms of these two important traits that influence the final yield of sugar. In terms of the percentage of aphid-infected roots, the studied cultivars were placed in three statistical groups. As such, BTS505 and Asia cultivars with the lowest infection percentage were in the first group (as resistant cultivars), Arta, Dena, biopolymerized Shokoofa, and Nika cultivars with moderate levels of infection were assigned to the second group (as semi-resistant or tolerant cultivars), and two cultivars, Palma and Shokoofa, were placed in the third group as sensitive cultivars.

The use of chemical pesticides to control this pest should be reduced due to environmental, health, and economic considerations. On the other hand, the improper efficiency of many available pesticides necessitates the use of resistant and tolerant varieties of sugar beet to this pest (BTS505 and Asia as resistant cultivars) as the main management solution. Due to their genetic resistance to rhizomania and nematode diseases, they can be used for cultivation in many beet-growing areas of Iran. However, it is suggested to compare more different cultivars to be examined and evaluated in different years and places with different climatic conditions, which can finally be recommended with more confidence.

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a legume grown in cool season areas. It is one of the main sources of protein and energy and plays a major role in improving soil fertility. Peas are divided into two classes, Desi and Kabali. The Desi seed is smaller, wrinkled, and darker while Kabli has a lighter, whiter seed color, larger seed size, and smooth surface. The chickpea yield is 1199 kg per hectare in America, 1261 kg per hectare in India, and 409 kg per hectare in Iran. Until 2005, this plant was called an orphan plant due to the insufficient genetic resources in chickpeas, but the plant was known as a plant with a rich genomic resource after many efforts at national and international levels. Further studies on chickpea genetic diversity are important to improve the yield. Chickpeas have plenty of diversity in different geographical regions, and the genetic pattern and the amount of variation within and between these populations should be known to progress breeding programs and effectively use these germplasm collections. The evaluation of genotypes faces two key challenges. The first is the genotype-environment interaction, and the second is the interaction between the studied traits. This study aimed to investigate the genetic diversity in the Desi chickpea germplasm under autumn cultivation conditions, analyze the relationships of morphological-agronomical traits, and select superior genotypes in terms of all morphological-agronomical traits.

This study was conducted on 416 genotypes, including 335 landrace of Iran, 1 ICARDA genotype, and 78 ICRISAT genotypes, along with two checks named Kaka and Pirouz cultivars in the experimental farm of the Dryland Agricultural Research Institute (Kermanshah). The cultivars were evaluated in terms of morphological-agronomic traits, including the number of days to flowering, the number of main branches, the number of secondary branches, the number of pods per plant, plant height, the end number of days to maturity, seed yield, and 100-seed weight (HSW). The experiment was conducted during 2020-2021 under autumn sowing conditions and as an augmentation based on a randomized complete block design with nine blocks. The variance, heritability, and genetic advance were analyzed with the R software packages (augmentedRCBD).  The R software package (metan) and (GGEBiplotGUI) were used for the biplot analysis of the genotype by trait. Data were grouped using the K-mean algorithm, single method, and Euclidean distance with R software. The R software package (NbClust) was used to calculate the number of appropriate groups resulting from the cluster analysis. Using the R software package (metan) with the selection index (MGIDI), the top genotypes were ranked based on several traits.

The results of the analysis of variance were significant for the number of days to maturity, HSW, and plant height. The highest and the lowest coefficients of variation belonged to the number of secondary branches and days to maturity, respectively. The plant height and HSW traits had high values of heritability and genetic advancement. According to the results of the genotype by trait biplot, genotypes 148, 327, 391, and 277 were in the best conditions in terms of HSW, days to maturity, plant height, and days to flowering. Genotypes 6, 400, 18, 42, 26, 168, 15, and 2 were in the best conditions for the number of pods per plant, seed yield, the number of main branches, and the number of secondary branches per plant. According to the findings of the genotype by trait biplot, most of the selected genotypes were from the landrace of the Iranian chickpea. Clustering was performed using the K-means method, which divided the genotypes into two groups. In the second group, genotypes 6, 18, 148, 327, and 91 had more distances (according to the center of the group) than the other genotypes. Then, 62 genotypes were ranked as the best genotypes in terms of all traits using the MGIDI index.

The high genetic diversity of the traits studied in this research indicates the possibility of selection among the genotypes. Plant height and HSW traits have high heritability and genetic advance values, indicating the additive effects of the gene. In studies of the Desi chickpea populations, the breeding method of selection can be used to improve these traits. According to the biplot results, the number of pods per plant had important effects on seed yield in autumn sowing conditions, and it is important in terms of selecting genotypes related to the desired traits. On the other hand, the weight of HSW had a high correlation with the plant height in the Desi chickpea, which is very important in the mechanical harvesting of chickpeas. The superior genotypes selected in this research can be used as parents in future breeding programs of the Desi chickpea under autumn cultivation conditions.

Alfalfa is one of the key fodder plants due to its species diversity and high stress-tolerance range. In addition to producing significant palatable fodder, this plant stabilizes air nitrogen through symbiosis with rhizobium and causes soil fertility in addition to meeting its own needs. For fodder production in the hot and dry region of Sistan as the hub of animal husbandry in the province, it is inevitable to investigate and introduce high-yielding alfalfa cultivars. Therefore, the present research aimed to evaluate tropical alfalfa cultivars and identify high-yielding and more compatible cultivars in terms of yield production and selection of stands with suitable potential for selection.

The phenological, morphological, and functional traits of 10 tropical alfalfa genotypes (Zabol local purified alfalfa, Zabol local mass, Baghdadi, two Afghani masses, Nikshahri, Omid, and lines 473, 472, and 471) were investigated in the Zahak Agricultural and Natural Resources Research Station, located 20 km from Zabol city. An experiment was conducted in a statistical design of randomized complete blocks with three replications during 2017-2018. The bed preparation, including plowing, disk, and leveling, was operated exactly the same for the replications. The distance between the plots in each block was 75 cm, and the distance between the blocks in each replication was 1 m. After preparing the bed on November 15, 2016, furrows were created at a distance of 30 cm (four lines of 6 m) in the plots, and seeds with 95-100% germination capacity were planted at a rate of 15 kg per hectare. Seeds were sown in a row manually by opening grooves to a depth of 1 cm using the method of Hiramkari. During the experiment, the operation consisted of irrigation every 15 days in winter, spring, and summer (once a week) according to the needs. Weeds were mechanically weeded in the early stages of growth. In each year, eight plants were harvested at the 20% flowering stage. Days to greening, days to flowering, plant height, leaf-to-stem percentage, stem diameter, stem number, dry matter percentage, and wet and dry fodder yields were the traits measured during the experiment. At the end of the experiment, data on the fodder yield and morphological and phenological traits of alfalfa cultivars were analyzed using MSTAT-C software. The correlation was calculated using SPSS 16 software. Analysis into principal components and the biplot were done using the Past software. The means of traits were compared with Duncan's test at the probability level of 5%.

The fodder yields were significant among the genotypes at the 1% probability level. The highest average fodder yield (107.589 tons per hectare) was obtained in the Omid cultivar, with greater fodder yield than the other cultivars due to the number of stems, plant height, and stem diameter. Baghdadi alfalfa and Zabul purified alfalfa cultivars ranked next in terms of producing more fodder yield with averages of 103.513 and 102.463 tons per hectare, respectively. The lowest fodder yield was observed in the native mass of Zabul alfalfa with an average of 86.511 tons per hectare. The purified local alfalfa of Zabul showed an increase in yield by 18.43% compared to the native mass. The cultivars were significantly different in dry fodder yield at the probability level of 1%. The highest average dry fodder yield (28.323 tons per hectare) was obtained in the Omid variety. Baghdadi alfalfa and purified Zabul alfalfa ranked next with average yields of 26.419 and 27.322 tons per hectare, respectively. The increased dry fodder yield in alfalfa is considered an advantage because farmers store excess alfalfa in the form of dry fodder for their livestock in winter. The relationship between the examined traits showed that most of the traits were significantly correlated with each other. Fodder yield had a positive and significant correlation with the number of stems per plant and plant height, but there was a non-significant correlation with the number of days to flowering, leaf–to-stem ratio, and stem diameter. The dry fodder yield had a positive and significant correlation with the wet fodder yield, leaf-to-stem ratio, the number of stems, and plant height, and it showed a negative correlation with the number of days to flowering. Statistically significant differences were observed between the genotypes in terms of all studied traits. Based on the clustering, the genotypes were divided into two groups, and the first group, including Omid, Baghdadi, and the purified local alfalfa of Zabol, was superior to the others. In the mmean comparisons by Duncan's test, the Omid variety ranked first with the average wet and dry fodder yields of 107.589 and 28.323 tons per hectare, respectively. The Baghdadi variety and the local purified line of Zabol ranked second and third, with average yields of 103.513, 102.463, 26.419, and 27.322 tons per hectare, respectively. These genotypes were in good conditions in terms of other traits (plant height, the number of stems, and the leaf per stem percentage).

Considerable variation was observed between genotypes in terms of the studied traits. The highest seed yield was observed in the genotypes of Omid, Baghdadi and the purified local alfalfa of Zabol. In favorable conditions, a significant area of land in Sistan and Baluchistan province and similar regions can be dedicated to alfalfa cultivation, including Omid, Baghdadi, and the purified local genotype of Zabol.

Wheat is the key crop in many parts of the world that has the largest cultivated area. As much as 30% of all grains produced in the country belong to wheat, which is known as the main food of half of the world's people. At the same time, environmental stresses, including biotic stresses, have been one of the most important factors in reducing wheat yield in recent years. Powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis f.sp. tritici) is one of the important diseases of wheat that causes great losses to wheat production every year. On the other hand, the resistance of resistant wheat genotypes is not constant over time, and the resistance of almost all resistance genes commonly used in the world has been broken by new pathogenic strains of powdery mildew. This is because research has shown that the high pressure imposed by resistance genes on disease-causing populations has caused the rapid evolution of new pathogenic races, resulting in the loss of resistance. For this reason, one of the most effective and logical methods of controlling this disease, which is most compatible with the environment and sustainable agriculture, is the identification and production of resistant cultivars.

In the present study, 32 different bread wheat genotypes (Triticum aestivum L.) available in the Genetics Research Department and National Plant Gene Bank of Iran, Seedling and Seed Breeding Research Institute, exposed to 10 different pathotypes (Maghan 1, Maghan 2, Maghan 3, Maghan 4, Mughan 5, Gorgan 1, Gorgan 2, Sari 1, Sari 2, and Gonbad) of this mushroom were assessed for their resistance level in the two-leaf stage under greenhouse conditions. The investigated pathotypes of powdery mildew, collected from disease-prone areas of Iran, included five pathotypes from Mughan, two pathotypes from Gorgan, two pathotypes from Sari, and one pathotype from Gonbed Kavus. The disease isolates were propagated on the sensitive Bolani variety, which lacks the Pm gene. Genotypes were inoculated with single-cloned isolates by the rubbing method. One week after inoculation, the reaction of differential cultivars toward the disease was examined based on a scale of 0-4 according to the Mains and Dietz method. Based on this scale, pollution types zero, one, and two are in the resistant group, and pollution types three and four are in the sensitive group. In this research, the Bolani variety was determined as a sensitive control to powdery mildew disease.

Among the 10 powdery mildew pathotypes collected from important contamination centers in Iran, the examined genotypes showed the highest resistance to the Mughan5 pathotype. Genotypes TN127, TN79, TN7, TN180, and TN72 showed the highest resistance to 10 pathotypes on average. In total, the comparison of different powdery mildew pathotypes revealed that the Mughan5 and Sari1 pathotypes showed the lowest and the highest pathogenicity, respectively. In addition, the correlation between pathotypes was estimated to identify pathotypes with similar pathogenic power, indicating that the Mughan5 pathotype showed the lowest correlation with the other pathotypes, which probably uses a different mechanism for pathogenicity. Mughan2 presented the highest significant correlation, with Mughan3 (0.87) and Gorgan2 (0.81), which indicates the similarity of the pathogenic mechanism in these three pathotypes. On the other hand, the results of the cluster analysis divided the genotypes into two separate groups in terms of resistance to powdery mildew, and many of the investigated genotypes were included in the susceptible Bolani cultivar group. In addition, cluster analysis for powdery mildew pathotypes showed that the Mughan5 pathotype was in one group, and the rest of the pathotypes were in another group. Bi-plot and three-dimensional analyses based on the data analysis into principal components for the first and second components (87.95% of the total variance changes) showed that the Moghan 5 pathotype had a lower correlation with the other pathotypes. The negative side of the first component and the negative side of the second component showed the resistance of the genotypes. Thus, the resistant genotypes were placed in area 1.

The genotypes examined in this research have not been evaluated so far for resistance to powdery mildew. Therefore, sources of resistance identified in this way are reported for the first time. In general, a potential variation was observed among the genotypes with respect to different pathotypes. In terms of pathogenicity, the Mughan5 pathotype showed the least pathogenicity among the examined genotypes. Resistant genotypes in this research can be used as promising genotypes in wheat breeding programs. Overall, the findings of this research indicate a desirable diversity among the genotypes studied in terms of resistance to various strains of the disease. However, since identifying the resistance of mature plants requires screening the genotypes under field conditions and takes a considerable amount of time, it is suggested to utilize molecular markers associated with resistance to powdery mildew in future research.