فصلنامه نقد و نظر
سال بیست و نهم شماره 3 (پیاپی 115، پاییز 1403)

The central focus of this article is to explore how human autonomy and freedom are shaped using the principles and approaches of Christianity during the early modern period in Europe. The research adopts a historical and foundational methodology. Christianity, as interpreted in a particular way within modern philosophy, emerges as a religion of individuality, freedom, and the liberation of humans from external authority. Descartes' philosophy, in a sense, shares this central theme of freedom with Christianity. He is among the first figures in Western intellectual history to take significant steps toward liberating humanity from external authority. Descartes’ epistemological theory paves the way for greater human freedom and independence by positioning reason as autonomous and self-legislating, reliant solely on its own principles and acknowledging no authority higher than itself. With this approach, Christianity plays a crucial role in shaping Descartes' way of thinking. However, for Christianity to serve as the foundation for all modern transformations, it needed a theologian like Thomas Aquinas, who could bridge the sacred Christian principles with the secular outlook of the modern world. This article examines the relationship between Christianity, the philosophical revolution of Thomas Aquinas, and Descartes' philosophy of freedom.

Kindī is a philosopher who did not present a coherent conception of God. The God he portrays sometimes resembles the God of the Quran, at other times the God of the Mu'tazilites, and occasionally the God of Neoplatonists. These varying interpretations have led to diverse perspectives in his surviving works regarding the emergence of beings. Some commentators attribute the theory of emanation (al-ṣudūr) to al-Kindī, while others emphasize the theory of creation ex nihilo (creation from nothing). The main objective of this article is to examine al-Kindī’s views and those of his significant commentators on the theories of emanation and creation ex nihilo. The data collection method is library-based, and the data analysis method is descriptive-analytical. The article’s rough conclusion is that al-Kindī, by distinguishing between fiʿl (action) and ʿamal (deed), argues that God, or the "True First Agent," possesses perfect action (fiʿl), while metaphorical agents (fāʿils bi-l-majāz) perform deeds (ʿamal). This distinction allows creation ex nihilo to be understood as God’s action, while emanation is viewed as the deed of metaphorical agents. With this perspective, it can be argued that al-Kindī reconciles the theory of emanation with the theory of creation ex nihilo.

he analysis and evaluation of the scope of the Principle of Divine Grace (Qāʿidat al-Luṭf) according to scholars of jurisprudential principles (Uṣūliyyūn) is the main question of this study. Conducted under the presupposition of the necessity of divine grace and adopting a constructive rather than foundational analytical approach, this research critically examines the theories of these scholars—a task deemed necessary due to the paucity of studies in this area. The findings reveal that the approach mandating categorical grace (luṭf tanjīzī) is incompatible with rational judgment, as reason recognizes no condition other than the realization of the subject in affirming the obligation of divine grace. The perspective advocating the absolute obligation of grace is subject to three interpretations, all of which are found to be invalid and unacceptable. A significant flaw in the categorical grace approach lies in the incompleteness of its foundational basis, particularly when the ground of this distinction is an appeal to interpretive inclination (inṣirāf). Furthermore, the perspective that necessitates fulfilling grace (luṭf muḥaṣṣil) conflicts with the definition of preparatory grace (luṭf muqarrib), while the real obligation approach to grace addresses objections on the minor premise of the argument rather than contributing to restrictive approaches to the Principle of Divine Grace. I support the differentiation between types of grace, considering some obligatory and others recommended. However, it requires a proper interpretation that harmonizes with the established methodologies in both Islamic theology and jurisprudential principles (uṣūl al-fiqh).

Taymiyya's influence on certain excommunicationist (takfīrī) movements is evident, underscoring the necessity of examining and critiquing his foundational principles. Given the special role of transmitted textual (naqli) evidence in Ibn Taymiyya's framework of religious beliefs, this article employs a descriptive-analytical method to address the question: What are Ibn Taymiyya's principles in deriving religious beliefs from textual sources, and what critiques can be made of them? Key areas of focus include the types of sources, the relationship between these sources, their authoritativeness (ḥujjiyya), the validity of apparent meanings (ẓuhūr), the reliability of single-chain (khabar al-wāḥid) and frequently transmitted reports (tawātur). Among Ibn Taymiyya's contested principles are his denial of metaphorical meaning in the Quran and his rejection of esoteric interpretations (taʾwīl) of textual evidence, backed by numerous arguments. These positions have been met with extensive critiques. Additionally, his views on the acceptance of single-chain reports are not without flaws, and he has loosely applied the term mutawātir to certain types of conclusive reports. However, it is incorrect to assume that critiquing Ibn Taymiyya is as straightforward as critiquing other Salafists, just as his critique should not be equated with that of Muhammad b. Abd al-Wahhab, who attributes his ideas to Ibn Taymiyya. Unlike many Salafists, Ibn Taymiyya is well-versed in the perspectives of his opponents and prepares responses to potential objections—a characteristic that sets him apart from many other Salafists.

Studying the lifeworld of victims and followers of deviant movements and sects requires a structured methodology and principles to assist therapists in the pre-treatment phase. The "lifeworld" refers to the mental frameworks and awareness formed in response to events and temporal circumstances, which create the contexts and foundations that govern an individual's subsequent behaviors. To gain sufficient insight into the causes and contexts of ideological deviation or illness, the therapist must first study the patient's lifeworld, akin to conducting tests or imaging in medical sciences. In this process, various dimensions of the lifeworld are examined in detail: the world of therapy, the world of the patient, the world of conflicts, the world of commonalities, and "the other world" as the sectarian lifeworld. The "other world," considered the fifth world, focuses on analyzing the type of illness after understanding its causes and context. These steps provide the foundation and framework necessary for the therapist to initiate the treatment process. Acknowledging the importance of studying the lifeworld of sectarian victims as a prerequisite for effective therapeutic intervention, this article addresses the central question of how such a study should be conducted. Employing an applied-developmental research approach, it seeks to provide answers to this critical inquiry.

The Quranic exegetical style of sequential revelation (tanzīlī) requires the establishment of a reliable table of revelation order and the refinement of its theoretical foundations. This study seeks to address the question of how the three approaches—hadith-based (riwāʾī), ijtihadi, and integrative—proposed for constructing such tables, as well as the contributions of sequential exegetes, can be evaluated. A descriptive-analytical examination reveals that a purely hadith-based approach is inadequate due to the need for rigorous scrutiny of the chains of transmission and content. Similarly, the purely ijtihadi approach proves unreliable due to inconsistencies and disagreements in its outcomes. However, the integrative approach, which combines the strengths of both methods, emerges as a viable solution. By identifying shared elements in the arrangement of surahs and verses, distinguishing their differences, analyzing the content of surahs agreed upon in existing tables, and comparing disputed cases in light of context (siyāq), it becomes possible to determine credible accounts. This approach also considers various sequential arrangements in Quranic exegesis, thoroughly examines the chains of transmission, authenticates narrators, and carefully analyzes internal and external contextual clues. Thus, discrepancies are resolved, resulting in a more reliable framework for establishing the order of revelation.

his article provides a comprehensive analysis of the immaterial dimensions of humanity as presented in the Quran, including rūḥ (spirit), nafs (self), qalb (heart), fuʾād (inner heart), ʿaql (intellect), lubb (pure intellect), samʿ (hearing), baṣar (sight), and fiṭra (innate nature). The central question is whether these concepts refer to a singular reality or represent distinct and independent dimensions of human existence. Relying on Quranic verses and drawing from exegetical and philosophical texts, the authors aim to clarify the functional roles of each dimension and distinguish their conceptual and operational differences. The research methodology is based on conceptual and comparative analysis, using interpretative and philosophical sources to define each term and its functions. The findings indicate that while these dimensions are interconnected, they maintain independent meanings and functions. The rūḥ, as the most significant metaphysical aspect of humanity, is described as the source of life, connection to the unseen, and human immortality. The nafs manages the body and is susceptible to purification or deviation. The qalb acts as the center of spiritual perception and divine testing. The fuʾād is identified as a locus of stabilization and solace during challenging times, as well as a medium for intuitive awareness. The ʿaql and lubb are tools for discerning truths and providing moral guidance. The samʿ and baṣar, beyond sensory perception, are instruments for spiritual understanding and recognizing divine signs. Lastly, the fiṭra is portrayed as the innate human inclination toward monotheism, truth-seeking, and morality. The primary contribution of this study lies in elucidating the distinctions and connections among these dimensions, enhancing the understanding of human spiritual identity and its immaterial functions. The research underscores the importance of accurately interpreting these concepts for a correct understanding of Quranic verses.