مجله تحقیقات گیاهان دارویی و معطر ایران
سال چهلم شماره 4 (پیاپی 122، زمستان 1403)

Thymus lancifolius Celak. is one of the exclusive species of thyme genus in Iran, possessing high economic and medicinal value due to its high phenolic compounds. Considering the indiscriminate harvesting from thyme habitats, low production and non-standard quantity and quality of bioactive ingredients due to the high genetic diversity of thyme, the domestication of T. lancifolius Celak. species and its standardization is one of the goals of this study. In this regard, the quantity and quality of this species' essential oil (EO) were investigated and compared in habitat and field conditions. In order to investigate the effects of environmental factors on the quantitative and qualitative production of T. lancifolius Celak. in the field and habitat conditions (five habitats of Rezen, Asadabad, Hamedan, Malayer, and Toyserkan), this species was planted in the Ekbatan station through seed propagation, in the form of a complete randomized block design with three replications. The EO of plants at the full flowering stage were extracted using the hydrodistillation method, and the chemical compounds of EO were measured and identified by GC and GC/MS devices. The comparison of the EO percentage of T. lancifolius populations shows that there is a significant difference in the habitat, so the Asadabad habitat had the highest EO percentage (3.85%), and the Malayer habitat had the lowest EO (1.94%). The amount of EO of the populations in the field also has a significant difference, so the highest percentage of EO (4.18%) is related to the Asadabad population and the lowest is related to Malayer (1.78%). In the populations of Asadabad and Toyserkan, the percentage of EO from the field was more than that of the habitat, but in the populations of Razan, Hamedan, and Malayer, the higher EO belongs to the habitat. Compounds in all populations are almost similar in habitat and field conditions but differ in the type of dominant compounds and their amount. The result of the cluster analysis of the important bioactive constituents of the EO in the five studied populations indicates the existence of two types of chemical types (chemotypes), including thymol (chemotype 1) and geraniol/geranyl acetate (chemotype 2) in both field and habitat conditions. In the EO of four populations of T. lancifolius related to chemotype 1, the main compounds include thymol (habitat: 52.2-71.4%, field: 49.4-68.1%), carvacrol (habitat: 4.5-23.5%, field: 3.9-25.5%), p-cemen (habitat: 4.3-6.1%, field: 4.6-6.6%), and γ-terpinene (habitat: 3.9-9.3%, field: 5.7-8.9%). In this chemotype, the highest amount of thymol (71.4%) was observed in the Hamedan habitat, and the highest amount of phenolic compounds (80%) was found in the Malayer habitat. In the Razan population related to chemotype 2, bioactive constituents including geraniol (habitat: 52.1%, field35.8%), geranyl acetate (habitat: 22%, field: 16%), linalool (habitat: 6.3%, field: 14.7%), and thymol (habitat: 7%, farm: 12%) formed the main compounds of the EO. According to the results of examining the quantity and quality of EO of different populations of T. lancifolius Celak., two main chemotypes, including the thymol chemotype and the geraniol/geranyl acetate chemotype, can be introduced for the domestication and cultivation of this species in Hamadan province to prevent the destruction of thyme plants while using them in the pharmaceutical industry.

Taxol is one of the most valuable effective substances found in some plants, which is used in chemotherapy against breast, stomach, ovary, liver, lung, cervix and pancreas cancers. Hazel leaf (Corylus avellana L.) is one of the plants in which taxol has been proven. The natural forests of Ardabil, Arsbaran and Miane regions are important areas of hazelnut germplasm. The purpose of this research is to investigate and group the subpopulation samples of hazelnuts in these regions based on the SCoT genetic marker and compare the samples of a cluster using principal component analysis in terms of the amount of taxol present in hazelnut leaves and the phytochemical characteristics of the fruit. Current research was done in 2018-2019. In this research, 78 samples of native trees were selected from the natural forests of Fandalo, Ardabil, Mianeh, and Arsbaran (according to the geographic distance of the samples of each region, the population of that region was considered) and the geographic location of each region was recorded with GPS. Quantitative and qualitative characteristics of hazelnuts were collected based on the size, geographic characteristics and possible diversity among the hazelnut stands in the northwest of the country and based on the description of hazelnuts of the deputy research and identification of plant varieties, Ministry of Agricultural Jihad. In this research, based on phenotypic diversity, subpopulation samples (single tree) were selected, and DNA extraction was done from the leaf part by CTAB method. After measuring the quality of DNA in the absorption spectrum of 260 and 280 nm in the nanodrop, using SCoT specific primers, the PCR reaction was performed. Then, electrophoresis was performed for the presence or absence of markers (zero and one) and the data were evaluated using POP Gene v1.32 software. From each group, depending on the number of samples, at least two samples were selected and the amount of taxol in their leaves was extracted and measured. Selected samples of hazelnut fruits were selected and the amount of antioxidant properties, phenols, fatty acids and the amount of some mineral elements were measured. Based on the presence and absence of SCoT genetic bands in the genome of selected hazelnut samples from different regions, principal component analysis (PCOA) was performed. Correlation (Mantel's correlation coefficient) between the similarity coefficient based on the grouping of genotypes using the SCoT marker and the similarity coefficients using geographic characteristics data was calculated as 0.54, which was significant (Pvalue<.05). Examination of the amount of genetic information content (PIC) based on the used SCoT primers showed that the amount of PIC was different in the groups separated based on PCoA. between genotypic groups in terms of protein content, fatty acid content, fiber, carbohydrate, total phenol, palmitic acid. There was a significant difference in the probability levels of 0.05 and 0.01, and no significant difference was seen in terms of other traits. The comparison of the averages of hazelnut genotypic groups showed that in terms of protein content, percentage of fatty acids, amount of antioxidant property and palmitic acid, the highest average was related to the genotypes of group 1. The values of the similarity coefficients in the grouping based on the SCOT indicator and the similarity coefficients obtained from the results showed that the correlation between the calculated coefficients is 0.76. Evaluation of gene flow (Nm) and fixation index (Fst) within the populations and genotypes of hazelnut showed the highest amount of gene flow Nm and the lowest amount of Fst in all populations (Fst=0.55 and Nm=0.7) They showed that the same trend was observed in the groups as well, although the amount of Nm coefficient in the genotypes of group 1 was (Nm=81). The amount of inter-population heterozygosity (Dst) was estimated to be 0.15. Since the study of phytochemical traits always requires time and conducting numerous tests, the existence of reliable and reproducible markers is necessary to find genotypes with high phytochemical and taxol characteristics. The low value of the gene flow parameter (Nm) showed that the studied populations have a high tendency to differentiate. The existence of high genetic diversity within populations makes it possible to implement breeding programs. The high genetic similarity between the populations, the study of the SCoT indicator (the highest 0.97, the lowest 0.81) showed that the populations belong to the same origin and genetic background.

Drought is one of the most important factors limiting the production of crops in the world, which can adversely affect the growth and performance of plants. Bacterial endophytes, as one of the microorganisms symbiotic with plants, play an essential role in improving the growth and performance of their host plants under drought-stress conditions. Considering the problems of water scarcity in Iran, this study was conducted to investigate the effect of the bacterial endophyte Agrobacterium deltaense isolated from the bitter myrtle (Salvia mirzayanii) plant on some quantitative and qualitative characteristics of thyme plants under drought stress. The bacterial endophyte was identified using morphological, physiological and molecular methods. Then, the sterilized Thyme seeds were cultivated under standard conditions and transferred to pots after two months. Six months after transplanting the culture to the pot, Thyme plants were inoculated in three stages weekly using A. deltaense bacterial endophyte. The bacterial suspension was adjusted in an NB culture medium with a 1 × 108 ml concentration. Then, they were applied as foliar spraying to the aerial parts of the plants and injected into the roots. To ensure the presence of endophytes after one month of foliar spraying to the aerial parts and injection to the roots, the bacterial endophyte establishment test was performed in the plant, and then drought stress was applied for three months, and then the morphological traits, Physiological and biochemical properties of thyme plant were evaluated. A factorial experiment in the form of a randomized complete design was performed in three replications on the research greenhouse of the Horticulture Department of Hormozgan University in 2021. The treatments were determined at four levels of drought stress (0, 25, 50 and 75% of field capacity) and two levels of bacterial inoculation (no inoculation and inoculation with A. deltaense). The assessed traits included: height, fresh and dry weight of stem and root, percentage of electrolyte leakage, chlorophyll a and b, total chlorophyll, carotenoid, prolin, soluble sugar, Total Phenolic Content, Essential Oil Percentage and mycorrhizal dependency. Drought stress led to significant effects on the reduced performance of garden thyme plants, including decreased stem height, fresh and dry weight of stems and roots, chlorophyll a and b, total chlorophyll, and carotenoids. However, under severe drought stress (75% field capacity), inoculation of garden thyme with the endophytic bacterium A. deltaense resulted in a significant increase in stem height (41.35%), root dry weight (71.85%), root fresh weight (74.35%), stem dry weight (83.22%), stem fresh weight (37%), chlorophyll a (97.15%), chlorophyll b (09.41%), total chlorophyll (77.20%), carotenoids (25%), and caused a significant reduction in electrolyte leakage by 90.5% compared to the control. Furthermore, the presence of the endophytic bacterium A. deltaense, in contrast to its absence under drought stress conditions, led to an increase in proline (17.07%), soluble sugars (15.09%), total phenolics (27.39%), and essential oil percentage (20%), mycorrhizal dependency (84%) compared to the control. The study's results suggest that beneficial microorganisms, including bacterial endophytes, can be used as a suitable way to increase plant resistance to drought.  This potential can be used for sustainable agriculture and reduced slaughter limits in dry and low-water areas. In the case of the use of A. deltaense bacterial endophyte in garden aviation slaughter under dry conditions, improvement in the growth and functioning of plants can be observed, as well as an increase in the percentage of essential oil and phenol content, which is an indicator of their quality and effective therapeutic compounds. This increase not only helps promote plants' medicinal properties but also increases their economic and commercial value.

In recent years, green manure has received attention due to its positive effects on soil health and the quality and quantity of plants. It has been reported that intercropping legumes with cereal as green manures improves soil fertility and nutrient availability, increasing plant productivity. In addition to green manures, applying organic (vermicompost) and biofertilizers (arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) can positively affect the plant's productivity and quality. Considering the adverse effects of chemical fertilizers on the bio-active compounds of medicinal and aromatic plants, improving the quantity and quality characteristics, especially in low-input conditions, has become a significant challenge in the agricultural sector. Therefore, the study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of green manures and bio- and organic fertilizers on the nutrient content and morphological and phytochemical characteristics of peppermint. The experiment was conducted as a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with 8 treatments and three replications at the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Maragheh, Iran, in 2022. The treatments included green manures [barley monoculture, hairy vetch monoculture and replacement intercropping of 75% hairy vetch+ 25% barley, 50% hairy vetch+ 50% barley and 25% hairy vetch+ 75% barley], arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and vermicompost. Before harvesting, peppermint's growth characteristics, including plant height, number of leaves, number of nodes, and number of lateral branches, were randomly measured in 10 samples from each treatment. To measure the dry matter yield of peppermint, 3.2 m2 of each plot was harvested randomly after removing the marginal effects. The peppermint EO was extracted using a Clevenger by water distillation. Moreover, the EO constituents were analyzed using GC-MS (GC–MS; 5977A, Agilent) and GC-FID (Agilent 7990B). Data analysis was performed with SAS (version 9.3) software. Also, the significant differences among means were compared with the LSD test at P< 0.05. The results demonstrated that the highest N (18.05 g kg-1) and K (18.25 g kg-1) content was obtained by applying green manure as intercropping of 50% hairy vetch+50% barley. However, the highest content of P (1.75 g kg-1) was achieved in the AMF application. The maximum dry yield of peppermint (292.67 g m-2) was observed when green manure was applied as an intercropping of 50% hairy vetch+50% barley, which had no significant difference from the AMF application. Additionally, the maximum essential oil content (1.84%) and essential oil yield (5.39 g m-2) was achieved by applying green manure as intercropping of 50% hairy vetch+50% barley. The essential oil analysis showed that the significant constituents of peppermint essential oil were menthol (32.74-38.06%), menthone (18.33-21.42%), and 1,8cineol (5.20-6.12%). The maximum content of menthol and cineol was obtained by applying green manure as intercropping of 50% hairy vetch+50% barley. Generally, the study results demonstrated that applying green manure as intercropping of 50% hairy vetch+50% barley as a sustainable strategy can improve peppermint's essential oil quantity and quality.

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative condition that leads to cognitive decline and memory disorders. The primary symptoms include a gradual deterioration of cognitive functions and language abilities. One key factor contributing to Alzheimer's disease is the reduced level of acetylcholine, a crucial neurotransmitter in the brain. This decline is partly attributed to the increased activity of acetylcholinesterase, the enzyme responsible for breaking down acetylcholine. As a result, acetylcholinesterase inhibitors have become a promising treatment option for managing the disease. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in discovering more effective, plant-based drugs with fewer side effects. Frankincense gum (Boswellia thurifera Roxb.) is a significant medicinal plant in Iranian traditional medicine, known for its potential to enhance memory and cognitive function. The solvent used in the extraction process plays a crucial role in determining the quality and potency of the extracted compounds. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effect of different extraction solvents on the acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity of frankincense gum extract.

Ethanol, methanol, ether, ethyl acetate, acetone, and hexane were selected as solvents for extracting frankincense gum using the maceration method, followed by concentration with a rotary evaporator. The resulting extracts were then tested for their ability to inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity, as well as for their phenolic and flavonoid content. To evaluate the acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity, Elman’s method was employed, using a microplate spectrophotometry technique. Various concentrations of the extracts were tested to determine the inhibition percentage and calculate the IC50 values. All measurements were performed in triplicate to ensure accuracy. Extracts exhibiting the most significant inhibitory effects were further analyzed to understand their enzyme inhibition kinetics. The total phenolic content of the extracts was measured using the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. The absorbance of the reaction products was compared to a standard curve of Gallic acid to quantify the phenolic compounds. The total flavonoid content of the extracts was determined using the aluminum chloride colorimetric method, and the flavonoid content was calculated by comparing the absorbance of the extracts to the standard curve of quercetin solution. This comprehensive analysis allowed for a detailed evaluation of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitory potential and the chemical composition of the frankincense gum extracts, providing valuable insights into their potential as therapeutic agents for Alzheimer's disease.

The ethanol extract of frankincense exhibited the highest inhibitory effect on acetylcholinesterase activity, as indicated by its lowest IC50 value. In contrast, the methanol extract, which had the highest IC50 value, demonstrated the weakest inhibitory effect. The other solvents fell between these two, with increasing IC50 values: hexane < ethyl acetate < ether < acetone. Enzyme inhibition kinetics revealed distinct patterns of inhibition. The acetone extract showed a competitive inhibition pattern, while the hexane extract exhibited a non-competitive inhibition pattern. The ethanolic, ethyl acetate, methanolic, and ether extracts displayed a mixed inhibition pattern. In terms of chemical composition, the ethanol extract contained the highest amount of total phenolic compounds, suggesting a strong correlation between phenolic content and inhibitory activity. However, the total flavonoid content was similar across all extracts, with no significant differences observed between them. These findings highlight the potential of frankincense extracts, particularly the ethanol extract, as promising candidates for further research and development in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

The findings of this study demonstrate that the ethanolic extract of frankincense gum exhibits a significant inhibitory effect on acetylcholinesterase enzyme activity. Additionally, this extract contains the highest concentration of total phenols, suggesting that ethanol is an effective solvent for extracting acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, which may possess phenolic properties. Future research aimed at isolating these phenolic compounds could lead to the discovery of potent inhibitors with potential medicinal applications.

Pink evening primrose is one of the world's most well-known and economically valuable medicinal plant species. It has also been cultivated as an ornamental and medicinal plant in Iran. In addition, its seed oil is used in the pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic, and healthcare industries. Micronutrients and biofertilizers can enhance the quality of agricultural products. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and zinc foliar spraying on the nutrient uptake morphophysiological and biochemical characteristics of pink evening primrose. This research was conducted on evening primrose for one year, from October 2022 to September 2023. For this purpose, evening primrose seeds were first grown for 120 days in greenhouse conditions in size 10 pots and then at the time of transplanting to the main pot, they were inoculated with Glomus intraradices arbuscular mycorrhizal species, and inoculation was carried out at two levels of inoculation and non-inoculation during the transfer of the seedlings of the main pot. This experiment was carried out factorially in a completely randomized design and foliar application of zinc element in zinc sulfate at three levels of zero (control), 3 and 5 mg/L in three replications at the eight-leaf stage. Before planting the plant, samples were taken from the soil mixture used, and the physicochemical test of the soil included The concentration of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus and biomass carbon elements. The examined traits include Morphological traits (wet and dry weight of shoot, number of flowers per stem, flower diameter, length of flowering period, number of leaves, number of capsules, number of seeds in capsule, number of lateral branches) and number of mycorrhizal spores in the soil and physiological traits including chlorophylls a, b and total, carotenoid, phenol and flavonoid and antioxidant and activity of catalase and peroxidase enzymes were evaluated in leaves. The results showed that in the foliar treatment with 5 mg/l zinc sulfate, the number of flowers per plant, number of capsules per plant, number of seeds per plant, seed yield, number of internodes, number of secondary stems, fresh and dry weight of shoot and flavonoid phytochemical traits, antioxidant, catalase and peroxidase and in addition elements of phosphorus, zinc, boron, manganese, iron and copper were significantly different at the 1% probability level. Carotenoid, nitrogen and potassium elements were found to have a significant difference at the 5% probability level. The effect of inoculation treatment with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus on the traits of number of flowers per plant, number of capsules per plant, number of seeds per plant, seed yield, flower diameter, stem diameter, leaf area, number of leaves, fresh and dry weight of shoot, plant height and length flowering period and in addition, total chlorophyll, phenol, flavonoid, antioxidant and catalase and elements of nitrogen, zinc, boron, manganese, iron and copper were significantly different at the 1% probability level. The traits of the number of secondary stems, carotenoids, and peroxidase were significant at the 5% probability level. The interaction effect of foliar spraying treatments with zinc sulfate 5 mg/litre and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus on shoot weight and total chlorophyll at the 1% probability level, and the number of flowers, chlorophyll a, catalase and zinc element was observed to be significant difference at 5% probability level. The comparison between the treatments showed that the foliar treatment with zinc sulfate 5 mg/litre, along with the inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus, had the most significant effect on increasing the amount of flowering, seed yield and phenolic compounds and catalase and peroxidase enzymes. In general, it can be concluded that among the treatments used, foliar spraying treatment with zinc sulfate (5 mg/litre) along with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus can achieve high flower and seed yield by affecting the availability of nutrients and increasing vegetative growth. It can also increase the amount of chlorophyll and total carotenoid, flavonoid, antioxidant, catalase, and peroxidase of this valuable plant.

Savory belongs to the family Lamiaceae and the genus Satureja. Among the 16 savory species in Iran, 9 are endemic to Iran. The most important composition of the essential oil of these species is carvacrol, which has antiseptic properties and is used in the composition of some organic substances. The flowering branches and the aerial parts of the savoury plant are the most critical usable parts, usually harvested when flowering and dried in the shade and have a fragrant smell. In this study, we evaluated the adaptation of different savory accessions (Satureja spp.) in the climatic condition of Kurdistan province.

Thirty-seven accessions belonging to 10 Saturejaspecies were used in a randomized complete block design experiment in three replications at the Grize Station in Sanandaj from 2009-2013. The seeds were collected from different regions of Iran (Khorasan, East Azerbaijan, Yazd, Mazandaran, Kurdistan, Lorestan, Ilam, Gilan, Isfahan and Zanjan provinces). Savory species include S. sahendica Bornm, S. avromanica Maroofi, S. bachtiarica Bunge, S. spicigera (C. Koch) Boiss, S. mutica Fisch, S. macrantha CAMey, S. atropatana Bunge, S. rechingeri Jamzad, S. khuzistanicaJamzad, and S. isophylla Rech. The seeds were planted using transplanting trays, and at the stage of 8-10 leaves, the healthy plants were selected to be cultivated in unique pots. After levelling the ground and implementing the drip irrigation system, the healthy seedlings were transferred to the foremost field in the research farm. A sampling of savoury branches in the full flowering stage was done in early summer to mid-autumn. Variance analysis and average data comparison were done using Duncan's multiple range test. Using cluster analysis of the investigated characteristics, the accessions were separated into groups with different origins. Also, a variance distribution of the main components of the data was done for the principal components analysis. Essential oils obtained from 3 replicate samples were mixed and analyzed by GC and GC/MS.

Based on the variance analysis there was a significant difference between species and accessions at the level of (p≤0.01) in terms of essential oil yield percentage, essential oil yield per hectare (based on the dry weight of flower and leaf per hectare), total phenolic compounds of essential oil, plant's fresh weight yield per hectare and plant's dry weight yield per hectare, dry weight of leaf and flower yield per hectare, canopy area, the mean of the branch's height and establishment percentage. Also, the effect of the year on essential oil yield was significant. Comparison of the average species of savory showed that the average yield of essential oils in hectares (based on the weight of flower and leaf per hectare) was the highest in S.spicigera, S.mutica, S.rechingeri, S. macrantha, S.khuzestanica, S.sahendica, S.bachtiaricawith 45.20, 38.44, 19.00, 12.40, 12.07, 9.45, 9.26 kg/ha and the lowest in species of S.avromanica, S. isophylla, S. atropatana with 0.74, 1.64, 2.48 kg/ha, respectively. Species of S.khuzestanica, S.rechingeri,S.avromanica, S. mutica, S.spicigera, S.bachtiaricawith 91.90, 90.26, 58.45, 53.03, 51.35 and 50.49, respectively had the highest total phenolic compounds of essential oil and the species of S. isophylla, S. macrantha, S.sahendica, S. atropatana had the lowest with 29.15, 36.55, 36.85 and 37.60%, respectively. Species of S. avromanica, S. macrantha, S. spicigera, S. mutica, S. isophylla, S. sahendica with averages of 93.32, 92.30, 91.76, 83.82, 83.11, 81.44% had the highest survival or percentage of establishment, and S. atropatana, S. rechingeri, S. khuzistanica species had the lowest establishment percentage with 26.44, 31.73 and 38.89%, respectively. Comparison of traits in different species of Saturejashows that the yield of fresh plant weight per hectare is the highest in S. mutica and S. spicigera species with 13637.73 and 13570.76 kg and S. isophylla, S. atropatana and S.avromanica had the lowest values with 1199.43, 1604.31, and 1764.89 kg, respectively. The yield of the dry weight of flowers and leaves per hectare was the highest in S. spicigeraand S. mutica with 2173.94 and 2101.89 kg and S. atropatana, S. isophylla and S. avromanica had the lowest values with 338.45, 427.48, and 457.03 kg, respectively.

Based on the cluster analysis results, S. sahendica, S. bachtiarica, S. macrantha, S. spicigera and S. mutica were prioritized for planting in Kurdistan. S. avromanica, S. Tropicana and S. mesophyll were placed in the second priority for planting, and S. recharger and S. khuzestanica, with an average yield of essential oil of 2.87 and 2.41%, respectively (higher than the native species), due to their sensitivity to cold, the low establishment, the small area of the canopy and finally the lack of dry weight of flowers and leaves can be concluded that these two species are not suitable for cultivation in the same conditions of Kurdistan. On the other hand, based on the biplot diagram, the yield of essential oil per hectare positively correlates with the canopy area and the wet and dry weight of the plant. Therefore, S. spicigera, S. mutica, S. bachtiarica, S. macrantha and S. sahendica species, in addition to the large canopy area and as a result of increasing the dry weight of flowers and leaves in them, showed essential oil yield per hectare in the climate conditions of Sanandaj. Also, S. spicigera, S. mutica, S. macrantha, S. sahendica, and S. bachtiarica species have the highest dry weight yield per hectare with 5992, 5694, 2061, 1046, and 1622 kg per hectare and 20.45 38.44, 12.40, 9.45, 9.26 kg per hectare had the highest yield of essential oil.

Nowadays, medicinal plants have been expanded in the biological control of many plant pathogens. It is also widely recognized that tomato is an essential product in the food industry worldwide. The root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.), a hazardous parasite in tomato plants, produces gall by feeding and reproducing in the root and consequently causes biochemical and physiological changes. It also provides a suitable environment for the activity of saprophytic fungi and other soil parasites, which indirectly results in serious damage to the plant. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effect of fenugreek, lavender, borage and purslane plant extracts on controlling the root-knot nematode. Separate experiments in laboratory and greenhouse conditions were conducted as a factorial experiment in the form of a completely randomized design to investigate the effect of natural compounds of fenugreek, lavender, borage and purslane on the control of root-knot nematode in tomato. Nematode-infected tomato roots were collected, and after that, a single suitable egg mass was taken and placed near the tomato Falat cultivar root system; using the single egg mass method for nematode purification, nematode was identified and then propagated at the same tomato seedlings. After 70 days, the infected roots were cut into two-centimetre pieces and exposed to 10% sodium hypochlorite solution. After that, it was passed through a 400-mesh sieve. Eventually, the obtained egg suspension was used in the laboratory and greenhouse trials. First, water, ethanol, and acetone extracts were prepared from the mentioned plants to experiment. The laboratory section assessed the effect of extracts on larval mortality and the number of egg hatching after 24, 48, and 72 hours of exposure to 0, 250, 500, 750, and 1000 ppm extracts. Afterwards, these compounds' anti-nematode activity was investigated at the greenhouse condition by adding 0, 250, 500, 750, and 1000 ppm of the water extract to the pots containing tomato seedlings and nematode-infected soil. Finally, the obtained average data were compared based on the LSD test. The results revealed that water, ethanol, and acetone extracts of fenugreek, lavender, borage, and purslane had the highest inhibition properties in hatching nematode eggs, respectively. The highest inhibition rate was dedicated to 1000 ppm of the extract. Also, the greatest inhibition of egg hatching was observed in fenugreek water extract and 1000 ppm of the extracts, respectively. The highest number of unhatched eggs was perceived in 1000 ppm of fenugreek extract and 72 h after starting the experiment. According to the results, water extract was the most effective in destroying nematode larvae, followed by ethanol and acetone extracts. Fenugreek, lavender, borage, and purslane had the highest impacts on the mortality of second-instar larvae, respectively. Also, among different extracts, the concentration of 1000 ppm had the greatest effect compared to the control. The fenugreek extract application caused gall formation at the lowest level in the experiment. After fenugreek, the lavender, borage, and purslane extracts showed the highest inhibition of gall formation on tomato roots. Regarding reducing nematode numbers in the soil, the greatest effect was related to 1000 ppm water extract of fenugreek and purslane. However, they did not significantly differ significantly from other plants using the same concentration. The results of the laboratory studies showed the positive effects of water, ethanol, and acetone extracts of four medicinal plants, including fenugreek, lavender, borage, and purslane, on the prevention of egg hatching and the mortality of instar larvae of root-knot nematodes. The evaluation of the growth and development indicators showed that in fenugreek extract, a few galls were observed on roots, and the formation of galls was greatly reduced. After fenugreek, the lavender, borage, and purslane extracts showed the highest gall formation inhibition on tomato roots, respectively. The obtained data showed that fenugreek extract positively affected root-knot nematode decrease, and lavender, borage, and purslane extracts were in the next ranks, respectively.

Oenothera biennis L., known as evening primrose, has a unique place in medical science and nutrition science due to the particular arrangement of fatty acids in the glycerol molecule and rare gamma-linolenic fatty acid. Soil and water salinity is one of the main obstacles to producing agricultural and horticultural products in arid and semi-arid areas. Salicylic acid plays an active role in the plant's response to various abiotic stresses, including salinity, and research on this plant hormone is important in the production of agricultural products. This research was conducted as a factorial experiment in a completely randomized design with two factors and three replications in greenhouse conditions during the crop year 2021-2022. The first factor included four levels of sodium chloride salt at zero, 50, 100, and 150 mM, and the second factor included two levels of zero and 2 mM salicylic acid. For each experimental unit, 5 plants (five pots) were randomly selected and the number of branches, plant height, wet weight of aerial parts, wet weight of roots, dry weight of aerial parts, and leaf area were measured. Also, the traits of proline amount, total protein, relative water content of leaves, and pigments of chlorophyll and carotenoid were measured for each experimental unit. Variance analysis showed that the application of salinity stress treatments had a significant effect on all traits at the 1% level; on the other hand, the application of the salicylic acid treatment on plant wet weight and chlorophyll b had a significant effect at the 1% level, and for the trait of chlorophyll a did not have a significant effect, but in other traits, it had a significant effect at the level of 5%. It was also observed that there was no significant interaction effect only in the trait of carotenoid amount, and for the traits of proline and chlorophyll a, this effect was significant at the 1% level, as well as for the traits of plant height, plant wet and dry weight, root wet weight, leaf area, number of branches, relative water content, protein, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll, the interaction effect of salicylic acid and salinity were significant at 5% level. The results of the mean comparison showed that the increase in salinity stress levels decreased all agricultural traits and most physiological traits, which was insignificant up to the level of 50 mM and significantly above the level of 100 mM. Also, salicylic acid caused a significant increase in most traits. The evening primrose plant had moderate resistance to salinity and the application of salicylic acid treatment improved the agronomic and physiological characteristics of evening primrose up to the stress level of 50 mM (6.5 dS/m) and at the stress level of 100 mM (1.9 dS/m), the application of 2 mM salicylic acid moderated the effects of salinity stress in the plant, but at a stress level of 150 mM (13 dS/m), the agronomic and physiological characteristics of the plant decreased significantly, and the application of salicylic acid treatment caused a more decrease. Based on this, 2 mM salicylic acid is recommended to help improve the performance of the evening primrose plant up to the salinity stress level of 9 ds/m.

Saffron is one of the most iconic and valuable plants in Iran, with a cultivation history that spans centuries. It is a key agricultural product for export, contributing significantly to the country's foreign currency earnings. As the world's leading saffron producer, Iran accounts for 60% of global production. This study aims to analyze the patterns of energy use in saffron cultivation and explore the relationships between energy inputs and yield in the west of Isfahan province, Iran.

This research gathered the necessary data through questionnaires and interviews with saffron farmers. The inputs analyzed in the study included human labor, machinery, diesel fuel, chemical and organic fertilizers, irrigation water, electricity, and seed energy. The energy equivalent for each input was determined by multiplying the input quantities by their respective energy coefficients. Based on the energy equivalents of both inputs and outputs, key energy indices such as energy ratio (energy use efficiency), energy productivity, and specific energy were calculated. The energy ratio (energy use efficiency) was calculated using the formula: Energy Ratio = Energy Output (MJ ha⁻¹) / Energy Input (MJ ha⁻¹). To establish a mathematical relationship between energy inputs and yield, the Cobb-Douglas production function was applied. In this study, energy requirements were categorized into four groups: direct, indirect, renewable, and non-renewable. The marginal physical productivity (MPP) method was employed to analyze the sensitivity of energy inputs in saffron production. This method assesses how the performance changes when one unit of energy input is increased, while holding other production factors constant. A positive MPP value for any input suggests that increasing the input will result in higher output, implying that the input should continue to be used until the resource reaches its limit. Conversely, a negative MPP value indicates that additional units of the input decrease performance, signaling that further input use would be inefficient.

The results of this study revealed that the corm used for cultivation (seed) accounted for the highest proportion of energy consumption in saffron production, contributing 54.11%, followed by manure (13.51%) and electricity (11%). Notably, the proportion of renewable energy in saffron cultivation exceeded that of non-renewable energy consumption. Two methods were employed to calculate energy use efficiency in saffron production: one based on the total outputs, including stigma, leaf, and corm, and the other considering only the saffron stigma. For this study, the energy use efficiency was found to be 0.002 when based solely on saffron stigma. The R² value for the Cobb-Douglas production function, which was based on energy consumption, was estimated at 0.84, indicating that the model explained 84% of the variability in performance based on the five input factors: labor, irrigation water, machinery, chemical fertilizers, and animal fertilizers. The results of the Cobb-Douglas model demonstrated that the energy inputs of human labor, machinery, chemical and animal fertilizers, and irrigation water had a significant impact on yield. Furthermore, the sensitivity analysis revealed that human labor had the highest marginal physical productivity (MPP) among all input energies. With an MPP value of 0.87, human labor had the most substantial effect on saffron production, significantly influencing the overall output compared to other energy inputs.

The results of this study indicated that the total energy consumed in saffron production was 138,319 MJ/ha. Of this, renewable energy accounted for 16.46% of the total energy used. The key energy indices for saffron production were as follows: energy use efficiency was 3.7, energy productivity was 0.24 kg MJ⁻¹, specific energy was 4.8 MJ kg⁻¹, and net energy was 377,600 MJ ha⁻¹. These values provide a comprehensive overview of the energy dynamics involved in saffron cultivation, highlighting both the energy intensity and efficiency of the production process.

Milk thistle (Silybum marianum L.) is a significant medicinal plant that has gained a prominent place in the pharmaceutical industry. This annual or biennial plant contains bioactive compounds, particularly flavonoids, which are primarily concentrated in its seeds. The collective active components of this plant are referred to as silymarin, a compound recognized for its anti-cancer properties. Cell culture systems provide a promising method for large-scale cultivation of plant cells to produce secondary metabolites. This research aimed to investigate the effects of genotype, micro-sample type, phytohormone treatments, and callus type on the synthesis of bioactive compounds in S. marianum calluses using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In this research, a combination of Tween-20 solution, 70% ethanol, hydrogen peroxide, and sterile distilled water was used to disinfect Silybum marianum seeds to produce sterile seedlings. The sterilized seeds were then transferred to sterilized water and an agar culture medium (12 g/L) and kept in dark conditions at a temperature of 25°C for 15 days. After germination and initial growth, the seedlings were moved to light conditions. An experiment was conducted using two genotypes, Hungary and Borazjan, with cotyledon and hypocotyl micro-samples. The experiment utilized Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium and hormonal treatments of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) at concentrations of 1, 2.5, and 5 mg/L, along with Benzyl Amino Purine (BAP) at 0.25 and 0.5 mg/L. This setup was maintained in dark conditions and organized as a factorial design based on a completely randomized block structure. After 30 days, the calluses were transferred to MS culture medium with half the concentration of hormones. The effective compounds were extracted from the callus through defatting with petroleum ether, followed by extraction with methanol solvents. The components of silymarin were then separated into taxifolin, silychristine, silydianin, silybin, and isosilybin using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Statistical analysis of the data was performed using SPSS software. The test results demonstrated the effects of different micro-sample treatments, ecotypes, and hormone concentrations on the levels of silymarin flavonoid compounds (taxifolin, silychristin, silydianin, silybin, and isosilybin) in Silybum marianum extracts. Analysis of variance and comparison of the mean values of flavonolignans in the callus samples revealed that the highest amount of taxifolin was obtained from the hypocotyl micro-sample. The highest silychristin content was associated with the Hungarian genotype and a treatment of 5 mg/L 2,4-D. The highest silydianin concentration was observed in the Hungarian genotype treated with 1 mg/L 2,4-D and 0.25 mg/L BAP. The maximum silybin content was found in the Hungarian cultivar using the hypocotyl micro-sample, with 1 mg/L 2,4-D and 0.25 mg/L BAP. The highest isosilybin levels were achieved in the Hungarian genotype, hypocotyl micro-sample, and 1 mg/L 2,4-D. The overall highest silymarin concentration was recorded in the Hungarian genotype treated with 1 mg/L 2,4-D and 0.5 mg/L BAP. The results showed that improved varieties of Silybum marianum, such as the Hungarian genotype, produced higher levels of bioactive compounds compared to native ecotypes. In the production of these compounds, the type of micro-sample played a more critical role than the size and type of callus derived from it. Specifically, the hypocotyl micro-sample, which produced small, non-embryogenic calluses, yielded a higher percentage of effective substances compared to the cotyledon, which produced larger, embryogenic calluses. Additionally, lower concentrations of auxin and cytokinin hormones were more effective than higher concentrations in promoting the production of bioactive compounds.