فهرست مطالب

مجله مبانی نظری هنرهای تجسمی
سال نهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 18، پاییز و زمستان 1403)
- تاریخ انتشار: 1403/08/01
- تعداد عناوین: 13
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صفحات 4-19
درسال 1940م. - به طور همزمان- دوجنبش در نیویورک به وجود می آید که اولین جنبش را «اکسپرسیونیسم انتزاعی» و شاخه های آن را نقاشی کنشی یا ژستورال (نقاشی حرکتی) یا اطواری، نقاشی عمل و یا انتزاع تغزلی و دومین جنبش را «امپرسیونیسم انتزاعی» دریافت گری و یا برداشت گرایی تجریدی می خوانند. جنبش هایی که با سود جستن از دستاوردهای سبک امپرسیونیسم و درآمیختن آن با هنر انتزاعی شکل می گیرد. در واقع این دو جنبش، پس از چندی، به هنرهایی بین المللی تبدیل شده و در دیگر نقاط جهان نیز مورد توجه هنرمندان قرار می گیرند. بنابراین، هدف از نگارش این مقاله راه یافتن به تفکرات نقاشان و چاپگرانی است که در این برهه از زمان به رد هنرهای گذشته پرداخته و جویای مکتبی سراپا نوین، زیر چتر سبکی به نام امپرسیونیسم انتزاعی می شوند. بدین ترتیب، در این واکاوی سعی بر آن گردیده تا به سوال اصلی این تحقیق پاسخ داده شود که چه عواملی سبب بروز و ظهور سبک یادشده در آن دیار می گردند؟ همچنین به عنوان یافته ها و نتیجه ی این پژوهش می توان چنین گفت که در نیویورک، نه تنها جریان های اجتماعی و فرهنگی وقت از یک سو و سبک های ملال آور گذشته از دیگر سو سبب شکل گیری جنبش های یاد شده می شوند، بلکه مکتب های نام برده باعث مطرح شدن آن سامان، به عنوان پایتخت هنر گشته و با به وجود آمدن این دو سبک، نیویورک مکانی برای به اوج رسیدن مدرنیسم محسوب می شود. روش تحقیق توصیفی- تحلیلی است، گرد آوری منابع کتابخانه ای بوده و در برخی موارد از مآخذ اینترنتی معتبر نیز استفاده می گردد.
کلیدواژگان: امپرسیونیسم انتزاعی، مکتب نیویورک، جریان های اجتماعی و فرهنگی، ریچارد وارن پوست، میلتون رسنیک و دیگران -
صفحات 20-37
فرازبان در اصطلاح به معنای کاربرد گفتار بدون استفاده از لغات است؛ از این تعبیر در پدیدارشناسی مفهوم جابلقا در نگاره-های مکتب اصفهان بهره گرفته شده و بدین منظور سه نگاره از نگاره های مکتب اصفهان از آثار رضا عباسی و فرزندش محمدشفیع عباسی به صورت آگاهانه برگزیده شده تا با بررسی آنها عناصری را که در پیشبرد این مفهوم یاری می رسانند شناسایی کند. مقاله از نوع کیفی بوده و به روش استقرایی و رویکرد توصیفی -تحلیلی نگاره های مکتب اصفهان را مورد ارزیابی قرار داده است. در نگاره های مورد مطالعه سه حالت متفاوت از تمنای بازگشت (غربت همت و نبود محرم اسرار در نگاره یک- عزم در تغییر شرایط و فرار از شرایط کنونی در نگاره دو- حس درماندگی و انفعال و عدم تمایل به تغییر وضع موجود در نگاره سه) یافت شد. در مجموع به نظر می رسد که به دلیل ارتباط دربار صفوی با کشورهای اروپایی و نقل و انتقال نقاشان و نقاشی های غربی به پایتخت صفوی، ظهور نگاره هایی تک شخصیتی با بیان حالات روحی و روانی خاص (نشانگر افزایش فردیت و تشخص هنری هنرمند) ملاحظه شد؛ که واگویه های درونی نگارگر را در قالب تصویر عرضه داشته اند.مقاله حاضر مستخرج از رساله دکتری نویسنده اول، با عنوان "رویکرد فرازبانی در بازنمایی مفاهیم عرفان عملی: تبیین مراتب معنوی و بصری در نگارگری" است که به راهنمایی دکتر حسن بلخاری قهی و دکتر میناصدری در دانشکدگان هنرهای زیبا، دانشگاه تهران در دست انجام است.
کلیدواژگان: جابلقا، ناکجاآباد، غم غربت، فرازبان، نگارگری مکتب اصفهان -
صفحات 38-51
حدود یک سوم از 258 نگاره شاهنامه تهماسبی به تناسب مضمون خود، تصاویری از بناهای معماری را نشان می دهند که رویداد در کنار یا داخل آنها اتفاق می افتد. در این گروه از نگاره ها بخش هایی از دیوارها متاثر از ساختمان های واقعی عصر تیموری و صفوی، علاوه بر انواع تزیینات، با کتیبه های خوشنویسی آراسته شده اند. این کتیبه ها که بیشتر برفراز ایوانها یا کنگره بناها با خطوط متنوع به چشم می خورند عمدتا ترکیب های پیچیده ای دارند. این خطوط در اندازه های بسیار ریز چنان با ساختار پرنقش و نگار تصویر درهم تنیده اند که مشکل بتوان آنها را دید و مشکل تر اینکه بتوان آنها را خواند. شاید از همین روست که پیش از این اقدامی برای خواندن آنها صورت نگرفته است. هدف این پژوهش علاوه بر بازخوانی تمامی کتیبه ها، بررسی مضامین آنها در پی پاسخ به این پرسش است که کتیبه ها از لحاظ قالب و محتوی چه جایگاهی در ساختار کلی نگاره ها دارند؟ این پژوهش به صورت کیفی (توصیفی- تحلیلی) و به روش تحلیل محتوایی تالیف شده و منابع تحقیق به شیوه اسنادی و کتابخانه ای گردآوری شده است. یافته ها نشان می دهد که کتیبه ها از لحاظ محتوا به دو گروه عمده تقسیم می شوند: 1_ محتوای آنها، ارتباط معنایی با روایت نگاره نداردو تنها نقوش تزیینی هستند در قالب الفبایی. 2_ نوعی همخوانی میان محتوای آنها و موضوع نگاره وجود دارد. اجرای کتیبه ها توسط نگارگر خوشنویس و پس از اتمام رنگ آمیزی و با قلم مو انجام گرفته است یعنی در طراحی و ساختار اولیه اثر نقشی نداشته اند.واژگان کلیدی: شاهنامه تهماسبی، کتیبه نگاری، نگاره، معماری.
کلیدواژگان: شاهنامه تهماسبی، کتیبه نگاری، نگاره، معماری -
صفحات 52-72
آیین پررمزوراز مهر بر اساس منابع مذهبی و تاریخی همچنین شواهد و یافته های باستان شناختی، پهنه جغرافیایی وسیعی دارد. مهرپرستی برخلاف دامنه گسترده، منابع آیینی بسیار محدودی دارد. همین امر اساس مبهم ماندن بسیاری از حقایق آیین را فراهم آورده است. بر این بنیاد برای کشف اسرار میترا باید به جستجو در شواهد و یافته های بصری در فضاهای آیینی فرقه یا به عبارتی میترائیوم ها (مهرابه ها) بپردازیم. یکی از رایج ترین شواهد، صحنه تاروکتونی یا گاوکشی مهری است. این پیشگاه همچون یک متن آیینی عمل می کند و به انجام و باورهای میترایی دلالت دارد. از این رو پژوهش حاضر به بررسی سرشت و نمادهای تاورکتونی پرداخته و در صدد پاسخ به این پرسش ها است: 1) سیر تحول صحنه تاورکتونی در بستر میترائیسم غربی چگونه بوده است؟ 2) بر پایه تغییر و تحولات رخ داده می توان گروه یا مکتب هنری ویژه ای برای خلق صحنه ها در نظر گرفت؟ 3) نخستین الگو در پیوند با کدام محیط جغرافیایی و برگرفته از چه فرهنگ و مکتبی است؟ این پژوهش با روش تحقیق توصیفی - تحلیلی - آماری - تطبیقی و بر اساس مطالعات کتابخانه ای استوار است. نتایج بررسی سیر تحول صحنه ها را در طول سده های متوالی پیدایش تا زوال نشان می دهد که در پاره ای از موارد در افتراق و تشابه هستند. بر این بنیاد می توان آن ها را در سه گروه یا مکتب هنری وابسته به شرق، مرکز و غرب دسته بندی کرد که هر یک گویای پتانسیل هنری و فرهنگی تک تک اعضای جامعه میترایی است. همچنین نخستین الگو به لحاظ قدمت در ارتباط با مصر و مکتب وابسته به شرق است.
کلیدواژگان: تاروکتونی، گاوکشی، میترائیوم، مهرابه، میترائیسم -
صفحات 73-88
حافظ، شاعر و غزل سرای مشهور ایرانی چنان شهرت بالایی داشته است که گوته نویسنده و شاعر معروف آلمانی پس از آشنایی با غزلیات حافظ، دیوان شرقی- غربی خود را به تبعیت از دیوان او نگاشته است. این وجه اشتراک اشعار میان دیوان گوته و حافظ، در ادامه تصویرسازی های که از این دو دیوان خلق شده است، در پژوهش فوق مورد بررسی نشانه معناشناسی قرار گرفته است. گرمس نظریه پرداز نشانه معناشناسی بر آن عقیده است که از ظاهر متن باید گذشت و به عمق آن پی برد. از این رو است که، بررسی نشانه معناشناسی نوعی بررسی برای کشف و تجزیه تحلیل میان متون و تصاویر به شمار می رود. تحقیق پیش رو یک تحقیق توصیفی تحلیلی از نوع کیفی است. گردآوری اطلاعات به صورت کتابخانه ای است. ابزار گردآوری اطلاعات به صورت بررسی تصاویر و متون نگارشی بوده است. جامعه آماری آثار محمود فرشچیان برگرفته از دیوان حافظ و آثار تصویرگر آلمانی-اتریشی فرانس زاور سیم برگرفته از دیوان شرقی- غربی گوته است.6 نقاشی از دو تصویرگر غربی و شرقی، از منظر نشانه معناشناسی با متن شعر مورد بررسی قرار گرفته شده، 10 نماد مشترک: پیر سالک، عاشق و معشوق، گیاه و حیوان و اشیا، مکان تصویر، بهشت، البسه، سبک، تکنیک، رستگاری نهایی و نوع روایتگری، نمادهای قالب بوده است. گوته شیفته ی حافظ است و حافظ شیفته ی قرآن و عرفان، از اینرو است که، در بیان آثار نقاش غربی و استاد فرشچیان به جهت نوع دیدگاه و فرهنگ زیستی هر کدام برداشت در ظاهر یکسان و در باطن متفاوتی از اشعار داشته اند.
کلیدواژگان: نشانه معناشناسی، تصویرگری، دیوان حافظ، دیوان شرقی-غربی، گوته -
صفحات 89-100
نماد ها همواره از راه های بیان اندیشه ها و عقاید آیینی، دینی و مذهبی در آثار هنری بوده است. اگرچه صلیب، مسیح (ع) و دین مسیحیت را به ذهن متبادر می کند، اما نقش صلیب، نشانه بسیاری از مفاهیمی است که سابقه آن به بین النهرین باستان می رسد. هدف از این مطالعه، شناخت وجوه تشابه و تمایز گونه ای از نماد مرتبط با صلیب به شکل «IYI» در بین النهرین، ایران و نقاشی های تصلیب حضرت عیسی (ع) در اروپاست. این پژوهش به روش توصیفی تحلیلی، با رویکرد تطبیقی و با استفاده از مطالعات کتابخانه ای و مشاهده آثار انجام شده است. نتایج این پژوهش نشان می دهد که کاربرد نماد صلیب با نگاهی دینی، آیینی و تزیینی، وجه مشترک تمدن های مورد مطالعه بوده است. همچنین سوابق تاریخی نماد صلیب و نماد «IYI» در فرهنگ شرقی بیشتر از اروپاست. ریشه های این نماد را می توان در نقش برجسته ها و مهر های استوانه ای در بین النهرین و ایران مشاهده نمود. نمونه های کاربرد نماد «IYI» در ایران به مفرغ های لرستان و مهرهای دوره هخامنشی و نقوش صخره ای مربوط می شود. تعدد آثار موجود نشان می دهد که نماد صلیب در فرهنگ مسیحیت نمود بیشتری داشته است و هنرمندان مسیحی موفق شده اند که نماد «IYI» را با تغییراتی در ترکیب بندی نقاشی های تصلیب به کار گیرند و آن را به نماد دین مسیحی تبدیل کنند.
کلیدواژگان: کهن الگو، یونگ، نماد «IYI»، بین النهرین، نقاشیهای تصلیب حضرت عیسی (ع) -
صفحات 101-122
آثار آقا صادق (محمدصادق) نقاش دربار کریم خان بازتابی از مصادیق فرهنگی گوناگون عصر وکیل الرعایا ازجمله بافته های سنتی است. مقاله می کوشد کارهای هنری آقا صادق را نخست به منظور شناخت نقش و طرح بافته ها، سپس باهدف درک رابطه مضمون اثر و طرح، نقش و محل قرارگیری بافته مطالعه نماید. آثار به یادگار مانده از آقا صادق با تکیه بر رقم وی رهیافتی به دوره خلق آن است. پرسش این است که طرح و نقش بافته های موجود در آثار آقا صادق با توجه به حضور وی در دربار نادرشاه افشار، کریم خان زند، سایر حاکمان زندیه و آغامحمدخان قاجار تغییر نموده و یا به یک شکل بوده است؟ ارتباط میان طرح و نقش و محل قرارگیری بافته با مضمون و موضوع اثر چگونه قابل تبیین است؟ بااطلاع از تناسب نوع «رقم» آقا صادق با جایگاه سفارش دهنده یا افراد حاضر در اثر، می توان نسبتی میان نقش، طرح، ابعاد و محل قرارگیری بافته و جایگاه اشخاص برقرار نمود؟ جهت نیل به نتیجه پژوهش که ماهیتی کیفی داشته و از منظر هدف و روش توصیفی تحلیلی به حساب می آید، به منابع مکتوب و آرشیو تصاویر برجای مانده از آثار آقا صادق در موزه های داخلی و خارجی رجوع شد. شیوه گردآوری اطلاعات کتابخانه ای بوده است. حدود 28 نمونه دارای بافته داری تشخیص داده شد. در میان آثار مطالعه شده در این مقاله چهار بافته قالی، نمد، چنته و اسب پوش دیده شد و درنهایت آن که آقا صادق با توجه به نوع فضای درونی و بیرونی و مضمون اثر بافته ای متناسب نقش نموده است.
کلیدواژگان: آقا صادق، نگاره های نیمه دوم سده دوازدهم، دستبافته ها، زندیه، طرح و نقش -
صفحات 123-135
مارتین هایدگر اندیشیدن به مرگ را عاملی می داند که به زندگی انسان و به چه کسی هستن او معنا می بخشد. بر اساس دیدگاه هایدگر تامل کردن در رابطه با مرگ فقط به دازاین اصیل تعلق دارد و اصیل زیستن را شایسته چنین انسانی با این عنوان می خواند. مسئله تحقیق این است که تحلیل انیمیشن قلعه متحرک هاول بر اساس مرگ هایدگری چه ابعادی از شخصیت مهم انیمیشن را برجسته می کند. هدف پژوهش شناخت و تبیین ماهیت مرگ در انیمیشن قلعه متحرک هاول، بر اساس فلسفه مرگ هایدگر است. با به کارگیری فلسفه مرگ هایدگر، هستی قهرمانان انیمیشن مذکور بر ما آشکار می گردد و از طریق تحلیل هستی/ چه هستن ایشان می توانیم جنبه های پنهانی شخصیت های انیمیشن میازاکی را بیشتر و عمیق تر بشناسیم. در این مقاله با استناد به منابع کتابخانه ای و به روش توصیفی- تحلیلی، مقوله مرگ بر اساس فلسفه مرگ هایدگر توصیف شده و در انیمیشن قلعه متحرک هاول میازاکی تحلیل شده است. از بررسی و تحلیل تغییرات شخصیتی کاراکتر اصلی انیمیشن منتخب، این مهم حاصل آمد که مرگ اگزیستانسیال شخصیت اصلی یعنی سوفی ناشی از درک نکردن هستی او در جهان به معنای هایدگری است که بدون اندیشیدن به مرگ ممکن نیست.
کلیدواژگان: هایدگر، دازاین، مرگ اگزیستانسیال، اضطراب، میازاکی -
صفحات 136-148
هزارویک شب مجموعه ای منسجم از قصه های کهن، متاثر از فرهنگ های مختلف مشرق زمین است. نسخه خطی داستان سیف الملوک و بدیع الجمال از مجموعه هزارویک شب، در هند و به خط نستعلیق تحریر یافته است. اندیشه باختین نظریه پرداز ادبیات در سده بیستم، آگاهی از حقیقت را به یاری دیگری ممکن می سازد که در ارتباط متقابل فرد و جامعه عینیت می یابد و کارناوال گرایی با هدف نابودی مناسبات مقتدرانه حاکم جشن گرفته می شود. هدف پژوهش تحلیل مفهوم دیگربودگی و کارناوال گرایی در نسخه خطی داستان سیف الملوک و بدیع الجمال بر اساس اندیشه باختین می باشد. پرسش اصلی پژوهش حاضر این است که چگونه می توان بر اساس اندیشه باختین نسبت میان خود و دیگری و کارناوال گرایی را در متن و تصویر نسخه خطی داستان سیف الملوک و بدیع الجمال تحلیل کرد؟ و نمود شباهت ها و تفاوت های آن در روایت و نوع تصویرگری نگاره ها چگونه قابل بررسی است؟ روش تحقیق توصیفی تحلیلی است و شیوه گردآوری اطلاعات کتابخانه ای از طریق فیش برداری و تصویرخوانی است. روش تجزیه و تحلیل داده ها کیفی است. نتایج پژوهش نشان می دهد که نسبت میان خود و دیگری در ارتباط دوسویه میان فرم و محتوای نسخه خطی داستان سیف الملوک و بدیع الجمال مطرح است. بنابراین گفتگومندی میان عناصر روایی و تصویرپردازی این نسخه کهن، با حضور دیگران عینیت می یابد و جایگاهی مشخص را نمایان می سازد. بیان وجهی متفاوت از زندگی سیف الملوک که به جست و جوی معشوق خود بدیع الجمال به سفر می رود حضور گفتمان تک گویه را در زمینه ای کارناوالی به گفتگو تبدیل می کند.
کلیدواژگان: دیگربودگی، کارناوال گرایی، نسخه خطی، سیف الملوک و بدیع الجمال، میخاییل باختین -
صفحات 149-165
آنچه کتیبه های حاشیه داخلی سفالینه های گلابه ای (به قلم کوفی تزئینی با روش قالبی) را از سایر کتیبه های کوفی تزئینی متمایز می کند سطح مقعر آن است؛ زیرا با کاهش قطر بستر، کرسی های افقی مدور شده و عناصر به پرسپکتیو می روند. از این رو قاعده «حسن وضع» تحت الشعاع قرار می گیرد. بنابراین تحلیل ساختاری کتیبه های کوفی تزئینی سفالینه های گلابه ای سامانی بر اساس اصول خوشنویسی و مبانی کتیبه نگاری بر پایه قاعده «حسن وضع» جهت شناخت ارزش های بصری و درک وجوه زیبایی شناسی و کیفیات بصری آن ها، هدف اصلی این مقاله است. پژوهش حاضر همچنین به دنبال پاسخ به این دو پرسش است که کتیبه های کوفی تزئینی سفال های گلابه ای خراسان بر اساس «حسن وضع» چه ساختار و ویژگی هایی دارد؟ و این خصایص چه تاثیری بر کیفیت بصری و زیبایی کتیبه ها داشته است؟در همین راستا مقاله پیش رو با رویکردی توصیفی-تحلیلی و از طریق مطالعات کتابخانه ای، به تحلیل 17 نمونه از این کتیبه ها پرداخت. در نهایت این نتیجه حاصل شد که حسن هم نشینی مفردات و پیوند آن ها با آرایه های گیاهی و هندسی، موافق اصول کرسی بندی انجام شده است. پای بندی نظام نوشتاری و تزئینی به کرسی و ترکیب بندی جزئی، به تکرار، تقارن، تعادل، توازن و ضرب آهنگ انجامیده که در نهایت به ترکیب بندی کلی مطلوبی منجر شده است.
کلیدواژگان: کتیبه نگاری، کوفی تزئینی، حسن وضع، ترکیب بندی، سفال گلابه ای -
صفحات 166-180
آینه کاری از هنرهای وابسته به معماری در ابنیه مذهبی ایران، نقش پررنگی داشته و توانسته فضایی آکنده از نور و پاکی را برای زائران به ارمغان آورد. حرم مطهر امام رضا علیه السلام به استناد مدارک از عصر صفوی تاکنون همواره موردتوجه حامیان و بانیان بوده است. هنرمندان شیوه های متنوعی از آینه کاری را در این مکان به تصویر کشیده که نشان از ارادت ایشان بدین آستان دارد. هدف نوشتار، بررسی شیوه های آینه کاری در این مکان و طرح و نقشی است که آینه سینه جداره ها را مزین کرده است. ازاین رو شیوه های آینه کاری در حرم مطهر امام رضا (ع) چیست و نقوش مورداستفاده کدام است؟ روش تحقیق تاریخی، توصیفی و تحلیلی است. نوع تحقیق، کیفی و هدف بنیادین بوده؛ جمع آوری اطلاعات اسنادی و کتابخانه ای و به ویژه بر عکاسی میدانی استوارشده است. یافته ها نشان می دهد شیوه های آینه کاری به ده نمونه می رسد که نیم برجسته و آینه و گچ پرکاربردترین آن هاست. نقوش عمدتا گره هندسی و در کنار آن گیاهی و کتیبه است. تاکید بر عدد هشت و سپس ده و شش و دوازده بوده و کتیبه ها به حقانیت شیعه اشاره دارند. آینه کاری آبشاری یا شمشیری از دستاوردهای هنرمندان آینه کار مشهدی است که دوره معاصر بروز نموده و جلوه ای متفاوت از دو زاویه به زائر ارزانی می دارد.
کلیدواژگان: آینه کاری حرم مطهر آمام رضا (ع)، شیوه های آینه کاری، نقوش آینه کاری -
صفحات 181-195
صنایع دستی بازتابی از فعالیت انسان در محیط طبیعی و تجلی فرهنگ آن در طول تاریخ است. ع به اعتبار یافته های علمی و تاریخی، صنایع دستی در گذر زمان و متناسب با اقتضائات هر دوره ای دچار تغییر و تحول می شود. شرایط کنونی و تحولات دنیای مدرن نیز ایجاب می کند عوامل و زمینه های مختلف و تاثیر گذار بر توسعه پایدار صنایع دستی شناسایی و مورد بررسی قرار گیرند. بر این اساس پژوهش حاضر در صدد شناسایی و ارائه عوامل و زمینه های مذکور در صنایع دستی است. سوال پژوهش نیز بدین شکل طرح می گردد که: عوامل تاثیرگذار بر توسعه پایدار صنایع دستی کدامند؟ پژوهش از منظر هدف توسعه ای کاربردی، و از حیث روش کیفی به حساب می آید. داده به روش کتابخانه ای و از منابع اینترنتی جمع آوری شده است. در تجزیه و تحلیل داده-ها که با هدف سنخ شناسی موضوعی انجام شد؛ با استفاده از روش تحلیل محتوای کیفی در چندین مرحله از جمله: مدیریت و نظام مندی داده ها، پالایش و استخراج مفاهیم، طبقه بندی موضوعی و نهایتا با تکیه بر استدلال منطقی تشریح و شناخت هر یک از موضوعات انجام شد. نتایج این پژوهش نشان می دهد که ماهیت صنایع دستی همانند اعصار گذشته، در شرایط کنونی نیز متحول شده است. در دنیای مدرن عوامل و مولفه های مهمی از جمله: «آموزش عالی»، «بازارهای نوین»، «روش های تولید»، «التقاط صنایع دستی و طراحی» و همچنین «هم-آفرینی» در توسعه پایدار صنایع دستی و برای پاسخگویی به نیازهای مختلف نقش بسزایی دارند. این عوامل اگرچه تفکیک شده اند اما به لحاظ عملکردی در یک مسیر بوده و ارتباط گسترده ای با یکدیگر دارند.
کلیدواژگان: صنایع دستی، توسعه پایدار، اقتصاد، فرهنگ، تکنولوژی -
صفحات 196-215
توجه ویژه ناصرالدین شاه به کارکردهای مختلف عکاسی از همان سال های آغازین سلطنتش، موجب عکسبرداری از نواحی مختلف ایران ازجمله نیشابور شد. با توجه به عدم وجود منبعی که به تاریخ نگاری عکاسی نیشابور بپردازد، این پژوهش با هدف ارائه تاریخ عکاسی نیشابور در دوران قاجار، شناسایی شاخصه های عکاسی نیشابور و دستیابی به خوانشی واحد از این عکس ها، به واکاوی جایگاه عکاسی نیشابور در تاریخ عکاسی ایران می پردازد. درراستای دستیابی به این اهداف، به این پرسش ها پاسخ می دهد که کدام عکاسان در دوران قاجار از نیشابور عکاسی کرده و عکس های ایشان در چه نسبتی با کلیت عکاسی این دوران و در نگاهی جزئی تر خراسان قرار دارد؟ عکس ها شامل چه سبک ها و چه نوع گزارش هایی هستند و گزارش ها چه اهداف و کارکردهایی داشته اند؟ و آیا شناسایی تمهیدات عکاسانه ای که عکاسان در بازنمایی نیشابور به کار گرفته اند و هم چنین شناسایی ویژگی های مشترک در عکس ها، ما را به خوانشی واحد از عکاسی نیشابور در دوران قاجار می رساند؟ این پژوهش با روش توصیفی تحلیلی و گردآوری داده های آن با استفاده از اسناد کتابخانه ای، منابع تصویری و مصاحبه صورت گرفته است. یافته های پژوهش نشان می دهد آقارضاعکاس باشی، میرزاحسینعلی و عبدالله قاجار عکس های نیشابور دوران قاجار را در ارتباطی نسبی با عکاسی مشهد و خراسان گرفته اند. در انتها، اشتراکات در یافته های پژوهش و شناسایی ویژگی هایی مشترک عکس ها در قالب شاخصه های اصلی عکاسی نیشابور را می توان به منزله خوانش واحد از عکاسی نیشابور دوران قاجار تلقی کرد.
کلیدواژگان: تاریخ عکاسی نیشابور، عکاسی قاجار، آقارضاعکاس باشی، میرزاحسینعلی، عبدالله قاجار
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Pages 4-19
In 1940, two major art movements emerged in New York that significantly shaped the course of modern art: "Abstract Expressionism" and "Abstract Impressionism." While these movements were distinct in their styles and philosophical underpinnings, both were rooted in a reaction to the traditional art practices of the time, drawing upon the achievements of Impressionism and abstract art to create new, innovative forms of expression. Abstract Expressionism, one of the more dominant movements of the mid-20th century, is often divided into angular or gestural painting, also known as motion painting, and lyrical abstraction. On the other hand, Abstract Impressionism is an intellectual or mental reception of Impressionism, focusing on the conceptual and perceptual aspects of painting, often driven by the artist's emotional state and subjective experience of the world. Both movements, though initially emerging in the context of New York’s post-war atmosphere, soon transcended national boundaries and gained recognition from artists around the world. The primary purpose of this article is to explore the ideas and approaches of painters and printmakers working within the framework of Abstract Impressionism. These artists sought to break from past artistic traditions, creating a new form of art that was not just a continuation of Impressionism but a novel combination of intellectual depth and abstract expression. The article delves into the factors that led to the rise of Abstract Impressionism in New York and considers the social and cultural currents of the time that influenced the artists involved in its development. The questions that this research aims to address include: What were the underlying factors that caused the emergence of Abstract Impressionism? How did the social and cultural climate of the time affect its development? And in what ways did New York-based artists navigate their creative processes in pursuit of new forms of expression, eventually contributing to the formation of a distinctive style? Although much has been written about Abstract Expressionism and its development throughout the 1940s and 1950s, the later years of the movement and the influence of Abstract Impressionism are often overlooked. By the late 1960s, some critics began to argue that these movements had come to an end, yet the impact of Abstract Expressionism and Abstract Impressionism continued to resonate within the art world. Even today, these movements remain of great interest to contemporary artists in New York and around the world. This article seeks to fill a significant gap in the existing literature by introducing Abstract Impressionism as a legitimate and influential art movement, providing insights into the artists, the works that emerged after 1960, and the lasting legacy of this style. Despite the extensive writings on Abstract Expressionism, particularly in the field of art history, few studies have focused on Abstract Impressionism, especially within the context of New York’s art scene. Additionally, this research addresses the lack of attention given to these movements within Iranian scholarly literature, where their contributions have yet to be thoroughly explored. In this article, not only will the central artistic concepts and elements of Abstract Impressionism be examined, but the research will also trace the historical roots of modernism and modernity, providing a broader understanding of the movements' context. The origins of Impressionism and Abstract Art will be reviewed, followed by an analysis of how these styles contributed to the development of Abstract Impressionism. Additionally, the article will introduce the key artists involved in this movement, highlighting their unique works and contributions to the evolution of the style. This study explores how the historical and social contexts of the time influenced the formation of Abstract Impressionism and Abstract Expressionism in New York. The period of the 1940s and 1950s in New York was marked by significant social, political, and cultural changes. The post-World War II era, with its rapid industrialization and the rise of the United States as a global superpower, created an environment that was conducive to artistic experimentation and innovation. The artists involved in both Abstract Expressionism and Abstract Impressionism sought to reflect the turbulent and uncertain world around them, using abstract forms as a means of conveying deep emotional and intellectual responses to the human condition. The research further argues that, while the social and cultural currents of the time were pivotal in shaping these movements, it was also the rejection of the "boring" and increasingly irrelevant art styles of the past that spurred the creation of new artistic approaches. Artists were eager to break free from the constraints of traditional representation and explore new means of self-expression. Abstract Expressionism and Abstract Impressionism both provided ways to articulate the emotional and psychological experiences of the artist in an increasingly fragmented and alienating world. These movements also played a crucial role in establishing New York as the new center of the international art world. By the 1950s, New York had replaced Paris as the capital of modern art, and the emergence of Abstract Expressionism and Abstract Impressionism was central to this shift. While many critics and historians of the time dismissed these movements in the late 1960s, believing they had run their course, Abstract Expressionism and Abstract Impressionism continued to influence subsequent generations of artists. The lasting impact of these movements can be seen in the works of artists who followed in their footsteps, both in New York and abroad. This article thus aims to introduce and analyze the works that continued to emerge after 1960, emphasizing the ongoing relevance of Abstract Impressionism and the artists who contributed to its legacy. Through a descriptive-analytical approach, this research draws upon a wide range of library resources, as well as valid internet sources, to provide a comprehensive overview of Abstract Impressionism and its historical development. In addition to examining the art itself, the study also considers the broader cultural and social factors that influenced the movement, including the political climate of the post-war period, the rise of consumerism, and the shifting role of the artist in society. By analyzing the works of key artists associated with Abstract Impressionism, the article provides a deeper understanding of how these artists navigated the challenges and opportunities of their time, ultimately contributing to the evolution of modern art. The research concludes by asserting that the social and cultural currents of the time, along with the rejection of traditional artistic conventions, were crucial in the formation of Abstract Impressionism and Abstract Expressionism. These movements not only influenced the course of modern art but also helped to establish New York as the epicenter of the art world. Through the continued exploration of these movements and their influence on contemporary art, the article aims to shed light on the enduring legacy of Abstract Impressionism and its role in the development of modern art. Research Method The research employs a descriptive-analytical methodology, collecting and analyzing both library resources and reliable internet sources.
Keywords: Abstract Impressionism, New York School, Social, Cultural Currents, Richard Posette, Milton Resnick, And Oth -
Pages 20-37
Every social phenomenon is alive and dynamic when it moves in its cultural context, and parallel to the changes that occur in various political, social, cultural and artistic issues, that phenomenon also changes. Iranian painting in the 10th and 11th centuries A.H. has not been exempted from this. The social and political necessities of that period changed the path of painting. As a result of this transformation, the characteristics of painting were changed. Among these changes was the attention to anthropomorphism in painting, in such a way that man became the center of the image and attracted the viewer's attention by emphasizing the human body. This was especially evident when painting sought its themes not from literature but from routine and normal life among people. In Isfahan school of painting, due to the reduction of the role of the court in ordering copies, the trend towards new styles that encouraged realism, and the interest of the society's elites to own the paintings, certainly single-figure painting with empty spaces. It increased the speed of the artist's work and was cheap and allowed the artist to accept more orders. In fact, in Isfahan school of painting, there is a way of thinking that, despite being Iranian, influences from Western art can be seen in it, based on which the artist looks through his own eyes and introduces man in an image that gradually becomes A normal person becomes transformed. That aspect of the look that announces the artist's presence either in the painting itself or by writing his name on it. Based on this, every artist has the right to create works that represent him. Even if his name is not on that painting. Therefore, by examining the paintings, one can identify the individual characteristics and the work of the artist's hand. This means that the social position of the artist is stabilized and he gets an artistic identity. Here, the artist intends to express himself through his paintings, just the opposite of the past when the painter, by depicting a subject of a poet, was dependent on the book or its subject, and his work was done based on the order of the patron. The artist is involved in human moments and actions, and the human role is the main subject. Different types of utopian literature can be divided into three types in terms of the conceptual background Mythical Utopia: which is an imitation of the prototype of heaven and its material embodiment, on the border between Minu(paradise) and Gitti(universe). Philosophical utopia: which presents the most pragmatic point of view in the field of political philosophy and pursues to achieve a desirable society with models for organizing individual and collective life, and literary utopia which is based on Some of politics, wisdom, mysticism and humanism, etc., narrates the story of a trip to a city that embodies the human mindsets and aspirations of the creator of the work with a poetic or imaginary tone. The story of man's liberation from the dark narrowness of this material world and his return to the world of unity and his eternal abode has been reflected in various forms in classical and contemporary epic and mystical literature. Returning to the origin is the inner, natural and universal need of all people, which does not conflict with the desire for immortality; because they become one with eternity; therefore, returning to the eternal time means the desire to become immortal. Returning to the original to create a new transformation is, in fact, a renewed awareness of the creator of existence and a renewal of the covenant with him. In mystical thinking, returning to the origin of divinity is the natural inclination and desire of the heart of a complete mystic and possessor of knowledge. Mystical literature is a clear example of allegorical works with the theme of sojourn and the desire to return to the original. In these works, the mystical journey of the seeker goes beyond the formal interpretation and theoretical report and reaches the interpretation of meanings. These mystical parables are done with the help of active imagination. The allegory indicates the inner events and developments in which the soul, after being freed from the shackles and the gradual ascension and departure from exile, goes through the steps to reach the truth, and through this ascension with the vision of imagination, the face it focuses on imaginary and symbolic persons. According to the theme presented in the examined pictures and according to the mentioned cases, the result of the present research can be stated as follows: in all three pictures, we witness a kind of timelessness and spacelessness, where things like alienation By their very nature, they induce inconsistency with the world, the feeling of lack in what is, alienation from nature, anxiety and worry, which causes the escape and hatred of the existing world on the one hand and love, enthusiasm and desire for the world that is on the other hand. must be It seems that, in general, such situations and hauntings have appeared more in some strata of society, like artists, and they have seized the opportunity and have not given up their pen in portraying it. Also, it seems that the Iranian painter artist was not satisfied with what he was in the period he lived in, so he felt a lack and tried to compensate by drawing pictures of this kind. In any case, if we look at the issue from the perspective of Iranian-Islamic philosophy and wisdom, it is as if a conscious person has a desire to return to the origin and an exemplary and ideal place such as Jabolqa, which in some paintings, the aspect of self-talk (monologue) Imagery and Hadith had an image-like spirit; Manifested in an acceptable manner. The theme of sojourn and the desire to return to the origin is a precedent in Iranian mystical literature, and painters have depicted this incongruous and unimaginative feeling with the help of their active imagination. Metlanguage in the term means the use of speech without using words; This interpretation has been used in the phenomenology of the concept of Jābōlqā in the paintings of the Isfahan school, and for this purpose, three paintings of the Isfahan school, from the works of Reza Abbasi and his son Mohammad Shafi Abbasi, have been consciously chosen in order to examine the elements that are used in the advancement of this The concept helps to identify. The article is practical in terms of purpose and has evaluated the paintings of Isfahan school by inductive method and descriptive-analytical approach. In the pictures studied, there are three different states of the desire to return (lack of ambition and lack of a trusted person to telling secrets in picture one - determination to change the situation and escape from the current situation in picture two - sense of helplessness and passivity and unwillingness to change the existing situation in picture three) found. In general, it seems that due to the relationship of the Safavid court with European countries and the transfer of Western painters and paintings to the Safavid capital, the appearance of single-character paintings expressing specific mental and emotional states (indicating the increase in individuality and artistic identification of the artist) observed; which have presented the inner expressions of the painter in the form of images.
Keywords: Jābōlqā, Jābōrsā, Nowhere, Grief Of Remoteness, Metalanguage, Isfahan School Painting -
Pages 38-51
About one-third of the 258 paintings of the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp depict images of architectural buildings corresponding to their subject matter. These buildings primarily include palaces, magnificent government structures, fortifications, and fortresses. Although the Shahnameh's stories are set in pre-Islamic times, the artist considered the characteristics of aristocratic buildings from the Timurid and Safavid eras. These structures, which the artist had frequently encountered in his surroundings and perhaps even lived in due to proximity to the court, influenced his depictions. In addition to various tiling, plasterwork, and mural painting motifs, the aristocratic buildings of that era were adorned with calligraphic inscriptions. Similarly, the artist incorporated decorative motifs alongside writing to embellish his depictions of these buildings. This article focuses on these inscriptions, aiming to re-read and catalog all the texts before analyzing their format and content. Quantity and Quality of Inscriptions The 258 paintings in the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp can be divided into two groups based on their settings. The larger group, depicting events in natural environments, generally lacks inscriptions and falls outside this article's scope. The second group dedicates part or all of the scene to architectural spaces. This group contains inscriptions on walls or doors. Approximately 80 of the Shahnameh's paintings depict architectural structures adorned with various patterns. Among these, rectangular frames are used for decorative purposes 22 paintings feature frames filled only with motifs, 20 have empty frames without writing or decoration, and 38 contain inscriptions of prose or poetry. This article primarily focuses on these 38 paintings. In the selected paintings, inscriptions are written with a brush and paint rather than a reed pen and ink. As a result, their creation is more painterly than calligraphic. However, the high quality of the lines demonstrates the artist's mastery of calligraphy principles. Placement and Position of Inscriptions An examination of all paintings containing text reveals that the inscriptions occupy nearly fixed locations, much like calligraphic inscriptions on real architectural structures. Since most scenes occur on the iwan, the primary inscription—larger in scale and more refined in calligraphy—appears above the iwan. Smaller inscriptions are placed on the arch beneath the iwan or above doorways and windows, which are ideal locations for inscribed texts. Relationship Between Inscriptions and Subject Matter A study of the relationship between inscriptions and the paintings' themes reveals two distinct groups: one in which the inscriptions are unrelated to the painting’s subject and another where the text complements the illustration and story. Inscriptions Unrelated to the Subject Matter:In this larger group, inscriptions are valued primarily for their visual appeal rather than their meaning. The text, like other decorative elements, is meant to be "seen" rather than "read," as it has no connection to the painting’s theme or depicted characters. The texts fall into four general categories: short prayer texts, praises of Sultan Shah Tahmasp, notable verses of Persian literature (especially from Hafiz and Saadi), and texts related to the construction of buildings. Inscriptions Related to the Subject Matter:In this smaller group, the inscriptions and the painting’s theme are interconnected and complementary. Here, the painter-calligrapher not only demonstrates artistic skill but also a deep understanding of the interplay between text and image, requiring a strong grasp of literature to harmonize the two. Empty Frames Without Text Out of the 80 paintings dedicated to architectural structures, 20 contain empty or unwritten frames. These frames were designed for inscriptions, but for unknown reasons, they were left blank. The significant number of unwritten frames—constituting a quarter of the architectural paintings—and their scattered distribution throughout the book suggest that the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp was never fully completed. The absence of a colophon reinforces this assumption. The empty frames indicate that the inscriptions were added separately from the paintings. This reduces the likelihood that the calligrapher and painter were the same person. It also suggests that the texts' content had little influence on the overall structure of the work and was decided upon after the illustrations were completed. Summary of Findings The findings of this research can be summarized as follows:The inscriptions were later additions and were not part of the initial painting design. They were created using a painterly method by a painter-calligrapher, not by a specialist calligrapher using a reed pen. The variety and high quality of the inscriptions indicate that the Shahnameh's painters were skilled calligraphers. The repetition of the same texts in paintings with different subjects highlights a limited range of themes and a degree of formulaic composition. The inscriptions reflect the patron's (the Shah's) preferences, prioritizing his attention and satisfaction. While the buildings and inscriptions were influenced by the artists' surroundings, the selection of literary content aligned with the court's dominant tastes, favoring poets like Saadi and Hafiz. The qualitative variety of the verses demonstrates the painter-calligrapher's relative freedom in choosing texts, with minimal oversight. The frequent use of architectural terminology in the texts reveals a literary awareness combined with a sensitivity to visual and textual elements by the painter-calligrapher. The presence of 20 unwritten frames scattered throughout the manuscript confirms the incomplete state of the Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp.
Keywords: Shahnameh Of Shah Tahmasp, Inscriptions, Painting, Architecture -
Pages 52-72
Mithraism, also known as the Religion of Mithras, is one of the ancient and well-documented religions of the ancient East, with origins tracing back to the second millennium BCE. Archaeological and religious sources indicate that this ritual entered the Indian subcontinent and the Iranian plateau via the Indo-European peoples. Over time, Mithraism spread westward as a religious bricolage, affecting cultures from East to West and existing in the West under the name Mithraism until the 4th century CE. Mithraea, or temples dedicated to Mithras, represent significant centers of worship for Mithraists. These sacred places were where the devotees gathered to carry out their religious obligations and rituals. Notably, Mithraea display remarkable artistic and architectural features, with one of the most iconic being the religious depiction of the Tauroctony scene at the center of the altar. The Tauroctony is a central motif within Mithraic worship, usually shown as a representation of Mithras sacrificing a bull in the presence of his companions. This scene, whether depicted in reliefs, sculptures, plaques, or paintings, is not only an artistic expression but also an essential and inseparable part of Mithraic cult centers. It is considered a key symbol of the Mithraic Mysteries, a system of secret religious teachings and rituals associated with the cult of Mithras. The Tauroctony scene, showing Mithras in the act of bull-sacrifice, plays a vital role in conveying the philosophical and theological principles of Mithraism. This scene, drawn in various forms across the geographical spread of Mithraism, reflects a consistent conceptualization of the cult’s underlying beliefs, despite regional variations. The term Tauroctony, meaning "bull-slaying," was first used by the Roman poet Statius in the 1st century CE in his epic Thebaid. The word and the scene it represents have been a subject of scholarly interpretation ever since. German scholar Franz Stark initially linked the Tauroctony motifs to stars and constellations, associating each character in the scene with a counterpart in the zodiac. His work was later contested by the Belgian scholar Franz Cumont, who proposed that the Tauroctony motif had its roots in the ritual practice of sacrificing a bull and bathing in its blood for the "Great Mother" goddess in Phrygia, Asia Minor. As a result, scholars have proposed two distinct interpretations of Tauroctony: an Eastern-Avestan interpretation and a Western-astronomical one. While these interpretations differ, most agree that the ritual structure of Tauroctony is central to understanding the eschatology and purpose of Mithraic practice. Due to the lack of original written texts from the Mithraic religion, the Tauroctony scene serves as one of the few reliable sources for studying Mithraism and its rituals. These visual representations not only demonstrate the religious affiliation of the worshippers with Mithras, but also offer a glimpse into the timing and execution of their sacred rituals. As such, this motif plays a pivotal role in understanding the cult of Mithras and the development of its religious art. The research into the Tauroctony scene attempts to clarify several important aspects of Mithraism: its etymology, the origins of its artistic representations, and how the scene evolved geographically and over time. This study seeks to identify the time and place of the earliest known examples of the Tauroctony, the geographical framework of its expansion, and the artistic developments that took place in different regions. This paper examines and analyzes 61 examples of Tauroctony scenes from 19 different countries worldwide, using a descriptive-analytical-statistical-comparative approach. The chosen examples were selected from regions with a small but notable number of Tauroctony representations, as well as from books, scholarly articles, and catalogs. The study adopts a comparative methodology, which assumes that Mithraism originated in the East and traces the spread of Tauroctony scenes from East to West. The 61 selected samples provide a comprehensive view of the geographical spread of this religious symbol over a period of approximately 900 years, offering valuable insights into how the Tauroctony motif evolved over time and space. The study's primary focus is the classification and typology of the Tauroctony scenes, which reveals key insights into the artistic continuity and change within the Mithraic tradition. These changes are reflective of the different stages in the artistic training of early Mithraic artists, as well as the distinct artistic schools that developed in various regions of the Mithraic world. The 61 examples are categorized based on three main criteria: 1) the technical features of the Tauroctony scene, including object type, gender, inscription, dimensions, the number of characters depicted, and symmetry; 2) the main characters of the Tauroctony scene, such as Mithras, the bull, the snake, the dog, and the scorpion; and 3) the secondary characters, which include the raven, Mithras's companions, Sol and Luna, as well as additional elements like lions, stars, zodiac signs, and aquatic animals. Once these scenes are classified, they can be further typologized into different types and styles. This typology is essential for understanding how the Tauroctony scene was adapted to communicate particular theological or philosophical ideas specific to each region. The typology of Tauroctony scenes is crucial for understanding how they evolved over time. Each of the scenes within the three categories can be depicted in several different forms or subspecies. This means that the Tauroctony scene had multiple variations that differed based on the location, the community’s specific beliefs, and the local iconography. By analyzing these variations, it becomes clear that the changes in the Tauroctony scenes were not random; rather, they reflect the changing beliefs and religious ideologies of Mithraic practitioners as they spread across different cultures. The evolution of these scenes provides insight into the theological concepts emphasized by Mithraic artists in different periods and geographical locations. The study concludes that there were three main artistic schools responsible for the creation of Tauroctony scenes: the Eastern, Central, and Western schools. These schools correspond to the three primary geographical regions where Mithraism flourished, with each region contributing distinct features to the representation of the Tauroctony. In each of these artistic schools, changes in the design of the scenes occurred as the cult spread, shaped by regional beliefs and the preferences of local communities. Some artistic features of the Tauroctony scene were created in one region and later exported to others, while some features remained confined to their original location. These regional variations of the Tauroctony scene carry valuable insights into the local religious beliefs, regional iconography, and the transmission of Mithraic rituals from one area to another. In terms of chronological development, the oldest known examples of Tauroctony scenes are from the Achaemenid period in Egypt. The styles used in these early examples can be seen as the models for later representations of the Tauroctony scene. Over time, as Mithraism spread from the East to the West, the artistic style of the Tauroctony scene evolved, with each region incorporating its own cultural influences. This progression is evident in the changes in the portrayal of the main and secondary characters, as well as the incorporation of additional elements like the zodiac signs, celestial bodies, and animals. These variations reflect the diverse religious, astronomical, and cultural influences that shaped the Mithraic world. In conclusion, the Tauroctony scene is a central and enduring symbol of Mithraism, representing both the religious beliefs and the artistic traditions of Mithraic worshippers across different regions and periods. Through the study of the typology and evolution of these scenes, this research highlights the adaptability and continuity of the Mithraic cult, offering insights into how religious motifs evolved over time and how they were influenced by the changing social, cultural, and geographical contexts of the Mithraic world.
Keywords: Tauroctony, Bull Slaying, Mithraium, Mehrabeh, Mithraism -
Pages 73-88
Shirazi Hafez, or actually Hafez from Shiraz, the well-known Iranian poet and composer of lyric poems, enjoyed such an outstanding fame that Goethe, the famous German author and poet wrote down his West-Eastern Divan (Poetical Works), following becoming familiar with the lyrics of Hafez. The West-Eastern Divan consists of twelve books that Goethe chose Iranian names that were prevalent in Iran for all of them. These names, as per the priority and latency of books in the Divan are as follows: Moghni Nameh, Hafez Nameh, Eshgh Nameh, Tafakor Nameh, Ranj Nameh, Hekmat Nameh, Teimour Nameh, Zoleikha Nameh, Saghi Nameh, Masal Nameh, Parsi Nameh and Khold Nameh. The meanings hidden in the couplets of Hafez's lyrics as well as Goethe's West-Eastern Divan have encouraged a wide variety of artists across the world to make innovative illustrations. Illustration is a kind of illustrative writing that narrates something. Mankind is inherently an illustration making being, whether when living inside a cave and making some illustrations to overcome the environment or now taking advantage of that to communicate and explain various issues. Therefore, an illustration artist helps people get an image of the work and enjoy more when reading a piece of poetical work. As human behavior science indicates, people communicate better to images and illustrations comparing to texts and illustrators take advantage of it to make the implications and meaning of a text or a piece of poem more understandable. In some texts such as Ferdowsi's poems, such implications are more transparent and lucid while they are almost hidden in Hafez's lyrics. Book illustration in Iran has been a lot more popular comparing to its western type, in such a way that painter Mani (216 B.C.), presented his famous book named Arzhang, bearing a variety of illustrations and inspired by the teachings of Manavi religion, as his miracle. The illustrations of that book are not available nowadays and only a part of book illustrated of Manvai ritual of the western Asia has been found that indicates the writing type of this book, but it has been surely one of the book illustration samples from the texts in pre-Islam era (Parthian era). According to Saussure, implications and signs are a signifier and meanings are a signified. Meaning comes after implication and they are dependent to each other. Semantic sign starts with sign but it targets the meaning. Greimas, the ideologist in the field of semantics sign believes that one should pass text appearance and reach the depth, because the deep and inner structures bear semantics sign and illustrator may take advantage of such meanings in the text and creates some innovative works. That is way examining semantics sing is deemed as a curious study for discovery and analysis between texts and illustrations. The present research is an analytical-descriptive one in quality type. Information has been gathered by library method. Information has been collected by the means of studying illustrations and written texts. The statistical population for the present research includes Goethe's painting taken from the book of Goethe's Works, 1st Vol. including 20 illustrations made in black and white by some western painters. Thirteen paintings have been painted by German-Austrian illustrator Franz Xaver. On the other hand, there are the illustrations of Mahmoud Farshchian, the famous Iranian painter that are 21 works made under inspiration of the lyrics of Hafez. Contrary to the western illustrator that all the illustration have come directly out of the meanings of text the West-Eastern Divan of Goethe, most paintings of master Farshchina are in one sheet and inspired by a lyric or a couplet and they have not been a set inside the lyrics of a book of Hafez. Finally, upon a final study, six paintings from the two western and eastern illustrators have been taken into consideration in terms of semantics sign comparing to the poem text and they include: Saghi Nameh, Zoleikha Nameh, Parsi Nameh, Teimour Nameh, Khold Nameh and Tafakor Nameh and six paintings of Farshchian have been compared and studied according to these lyrics of Hafez. Generally, the research results indicate that the works of master Farshchian have succeeded a lot more to propagate the signs related to the thoughts of Hafez, because the painter's thoughts, experiences, vision and beliefs have been reflected from the same culture and vision, but the western artists, like the way Goethe has been inspired by Hafez's poems, mostly reflect the material thoughts and western-type emotions in their works. The direct impression of Quran on Hafez and the spiritual and mystical style of Farshchian are clearly seen in the works of them due to cultural affinity and vicinity. A comparative recognition of illustration in the works of Hafez and Goethe in semantics sign terms indicated that 10 symbols such as old mystic, lover and beloved, plant, animal and objects, image location, paradise, clothes, style, technique, salvation, and type of narration are prevalent forms of works. These symbols indicate that the western painter has been mostly under the influence of Goethe's text and it has painted while being backed up by a western, Ottoman, Indian and finally Iranian culture, when painting. Wile, backed up by the spiritual, mystical and Iranian thoughts that he knows of Hafez, Farshchian has introduced him to the world. The impact of living areas of both painters of their visions and cultural roots has been directly reflected in their works. In using illustrations in approach of semantics sign in the poems of Hafez and Goethe, both painters have had in parallel imagination of the poem text and old mystic, lover and beloved, Zoleikha and the paradise. While the atmosphere of painting in the works of western artist is a material land, with objects familiar to all humans and in paintings of Farshchian the world is heavenly. By comparing the application of expressing mystical feelings by using image in the poetry of Hafez and Goethe it can be said that in the works of western artist, love is scattered and running in a private and peaceful place and thus is the beloved who looks at the lover from above and the lover imagines sitting gently next to the beloved and cursing her and this kind of lovely meeting is prevalent in the western culture but such meeting in the works of Farshchian, happens on earth but it is led to mortality of lover in the love of beloved, in a heavenly atmosphere that is in the background. Praising God and salvation are among other mystical aspects. The western painter and the poet, reaching the beloved or residing in the paradise is the last and final stage of salvation, while in in the poems of Hafez and in paintings of Farshchian, final destination of salvation is reaching the beloved that is actually God and the world worshiped and that is the gift waiting for human that is the very old mystic. As a result, it can be said that in expressing the works of Franz Xaver Simm and master Farshchian, a half of such symbols are in parallel on the surface but they completely differ in the other half. Goethe is fascinated about Hafez and Hafez is fascinated about Quran and mysticism and therefore in expressing the works of western painter and master Farshchian, each one has had physically a similar but actually different perceptions of the poems. Taking into consideration the existing limitations such as impossibility of choosing other images of Goethe's West-Eastern Divan, lack of access to colorful images of the western painters in general and the paintings of Franz Xaver Simm, in particular, likewise limitation of sources in the field of Goethe's works, type of different points of view of the western painter and Farshchian toward the text due to cultural difference and finally much time difference between the eras of Hafez and Goethe, it is recommended to the researchers to examine the poetry texts with the illustrations in works of Franz Xaver Simm and Farshchian, in other aspects.
Keywords: Semantic Sign, Illustration, Hafez, Goethe, West-Eastern Divan -
Pages 89-100
Symbolic concepts and symbols have always been essential for expressing ritualistic and religious thoughts in artworks. Chalipa, or the Persian/Aryan cross, is a symbol rooted in ancient mythology. This symbol is strongly connected to Mithraism and attributed to the Aryan people and the territory of Iran. Although the cross often brings to mind Christ (PBUH) and the Christian religion, its pattern embodies numerous religious and ancient concepts that date back to Mesopotamia and Iran. The cross in Christianity symbolizes the sacrifice of Jesus Christ (PBUH) and his crucifixion for humanity's salvation. Even the act of drawing the sign of the cross represents the Holy Trinity, and in religious ceremonies, it is regarded as a prayer by the priest. Christian tradition has greatly enriched the symbolism of the cross, embedding it within the history of salvation and the Savior's sufferings. Thus, in European paintings, the crucifixion of Christ (PBUH) has become a significant and enduring motif in Western art. The cross is one of the archetypal symbols appearing in various forms across human civilizations. In fact, it has taken on different forms in cultural and religious contexts. The "Y" cross, also known as the forked cross, is another Christian symbol. This cross gained popularity in Western European paintings starting in the 13th century and eventually spread to other parts of the world. Moreover, the discovery of the "IYI" cross symbol in the rock art of the Khomein region—and its widespread occurrence in many locations across Iran—demonstrates a continuity of cultural roots shared globally. These symbols are more abundant and often older in Iran compared to other regions. The "IYI" symbol, also known as "Homaye Saadat" in Iranian tradition, is a universal motif found in the petroglyphs of the Timreh region. Dating back to 2300 BCE, this symbol was used in Iranian civilization as "Homaye Saadat." In the West, it is similarly interpreted as a divine reference. Because of its symmetry, the symbol may be linked to a prayerful theme, suggesting: "May God grant me happiness in this world and the afterlife." This symbol predominantly appears in cave and mountain paintings in Iran. Additionally, traces of the "IYI" symbol have been observed in various parts of the world, including southern England, Italy, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Romania, Central Asia, and the Caucasus. It is a revered symbol among Christians and Jews in Europe. The similarity of these symbolic signs is evident in Bulgaria's mud inscriptions, flags, Kolah Ghabr Khan-e Kubart (a Bulgarian emperor's relic), Varnai stone inscriptions, Pliska inscriptions, Ivanovo Church wall paintings, and artifacts like the doors of the Great Pope’s church, Roman Catholic Church art, and coins discovered in southern England. Similarly, this symbol has been found in Iran's tomb of Sheikh Safiuddin Ardabili (in Islamic-period architecture), on the tombstones of Qashqai nomads, and in the mountains surrounding Khomein, Golpayegan, Marlik, and Shahrekord cemeteries. Furthermore, two montages featuring this symbol are located in Niavaran Palace. The purpose of this research is to explore the origins of the "IYI" cross symbol in Mesopotamia and Iran and uncover the relationships and influence between Iranian and Christian art. This study employs a comparative approach within the framework of Jung's theories. The research method is descriptive and analytical, relying on data collected from document reviews, field studies, and observations of related artworks from Mesopotamia, Iran, and European paintings. The collected data have been analyzed qualitatively. Findings from this study reveal that the cross predates Christianity, with origins tracing back to early human civilizations. According to researchers, the cross is a universal symbol representing spirituality and the ideal human form. Therefore, the Chalipa is not exclusive to Aryan or Christian traditions but has appeared as a universal symbol in the cultures of Mesopotamia, Sumer, China, India, the Celts, and Greece. The "Y" cross and the "IYI" symbol in Mesopotamian art are often depicted in non-abstract forms and can be recognized within human and animal figures. For instance, a bas-relief of the goddess Ishtar from the early Babylonian civilization (18th–19th centuries BCE) portrays a winged female figure with outstretched arms, flanked symmetrically by owls at her feet. Although her posture does not fully form a "Y" shape, similar patterns appear in representations of Gilgamesh and the animal gods of Mesopotamia and Iran, forming the "IYI" template. Archaeologists suggest that Lorestan bronze idols resemble Gilgamesh, the legendary Mesopotamian hero, often depicted holding two lion cubs or similar animals. Ghirshman theorizes that these idols represent the god Soroush, symbolizing justice and serving as a reminder of the animal gods. The primary form of these idols closely aligns with the "IYI" symbol, featuring a "Y"-shaped figure with symmetrical animals. Decorative variations in the idols emphasize curves in animal bodies, while Nazri bronze plates and cylindrical seals reveal correspondences with the "IYI" motif. Achaemenid-period cylinder seals also display the evolution of Ishtar's figure into the "IYI" symbol. For instance, an Achaemenid king is depicted as an animal god in designs aligning with this template. The results of this research highlight the cross's widespread use as a religious, ritualistic, and decorative symbol across studied civilizations. Historical records show that the cross and the "IYI" symbol are more prevalent in Eastern cultures than in Europe. Traces of these symbols appear in Mesopotamian and Iranian reliefs, cylindrical seals, and other artifacts. Examples from Iran include Lorestan bronzes, Achaemenid seals, and rock art, illustrating how these symbols transitioned into Christian art. Christian artists incorporated the "IYI" symbol into compositions of Christ's crucifixion, transforming it into a distinct Christian religious symbol.
Keywords: Archetype, Jung, Symbol Of IYI, Mesopotamia, Paintings Of Jesus (PBUH) -
Pages 101-122
Karim Khan Zand personally oversaw the processes involved in making artworks. The cultural heritage remaining from the twelfth century AH / eighteenth century AD mirror the cultural atmosphere of Iran during the Zand period. Accordingly, delving into the works of Muhammad Sadiq (Aqa Sadiq), a prominent artist in the second half of the twelfth century AH / eighteenth century AD, can further illuminate the mysteries of Zand woven products. Muhammad Sadiq was a painter at the court of Karim Khan and his works represent a diverse range of cultural products including traditional rugs. This study aimed to explore the motifs and designs in woven products portrayed in Muhammad Sadiq’s works and examine the relationship of the motifs, designs, and positioning of the products and the themes of his paintings. Studying Muhammad Sadiq’s preserved works, with his raqam (signature), can help expound our knowledge of the era they were created. Muhammad Sadiq was a distinguished painter and artist of the Zand period. A comprehensive understanding of the various aspects and components of his works could reveal factual information about the Zand era. For example, interior building decorations and ornamentations, foods, flora and fauna, individuals’ attire and makeup, and woven products (including machine-made, loom-made, and handwoven types). This study aimed to explore the motifs and designs in woven products portrayed in Muhammad Sadiq’s works and examine the relationship of the motifs, designs, and positioning of the products and the themes of his paintings. Studying Muhammad Sadiq’s preserved works, with his raqam, can help expound our knowledge of the era they were created. What are the most frequent designs and motifs of rugs portrayed in Muhammad Sadiq’s paintings? More importantly, how can we explain the relationship between the themes of his works and the types of woven products in the miniatures? What is the relationship of the motifs, designs, and positioning of the woven products and the subject matters of his paintings? Given the fact that Muhammad Sadiq’s raqams were adapted for the status of the client or the people depicted in his paintings, could there be a link between the motifs, designs, and positioning of the woven products in the paintings and the status of the figures? What can Muhammad Sadiq’s works reveal about loom-made woven works? There seems to be a significant relationship between the themes in Muhammad Sadiq’s works and the represented woven products in his paintings. With a developmental research design, this qualitative study sought to expand written sources on Iranian art in the Zand period by analyzing woven products, a type of applied art, as depicted in visual and fine arts of the Zand era. To this end, first, pictures of Muhammad Sadiq’s works, including murals, paintings, and lacquer works, were collected. Next, the woven works portrayed in the paintings were studied and classified. Finally, the motifs, designs, dimensions, and positioning of the woven works and their relationship with the themes of the paintings were analyzed. The study population included Muhammad Sadiq’s available works including murals in Haft Tanan Mansion in Shiraz, Iran, miniatures like the portrait of Rustam Khan Zand, and items preserved at the Malek Museum in Tehran, the Pars Museum in Shiraz, the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Brooklyn Museum in New York City, the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, and other museums based on Muhammad Sadiq’s signature. The data were collected through library research. The works were selected by nonprobability sampling focusing on availability. Overall, there were a considerable number of works available. Yaghoub Azhand’s Muhammad Sadiq (Aqa Sadiq) (2015) is the most comprehensive biographical work about Muhammad Sadiq, exploring various aspects of his life and character. Azhand’s analytical approach was a guiding light for this research. He provides an accurate analysis of different periods of Muhammad Sadiq’s life. Gianroberto Scarcia briefly reviews Safavid, Zand, and Qajar arts in a section of the Encyclopedia of World Art. In “Composition in Figurative Paintings in the Zand Court” (2010), published in the collection of articles presented at the Great Zandieh Conference in Iran, Maryam Berahmand broadly studies figurative paintings in the Zand period. In Lacquer of the Islamic Lands (2007), Nasser Khalili endorses Mohammad Ali Karimzadeh Tabrizi’s view on the contrasts between the works of “Muhammad Sadiq” and “Aqa Sadiq”. However, he contends that no authentic source is available for this supposition and considers both as the same artist. Khalili’s book also offers a biographical account of Muhammad Sadiq’s life and is held as a valuable source for providing pictures of the artist’s all lacquer works. In Ahval va Asar-e Naghashan-e Ghadim-e Iran [The Lives and Art of Old Painters of Iran] (1997), Karimzadeh Tabrizi writes about Muhammad Sadiq under the entry of the Persian letter sād. Like other researchers, he neglects the changes in the artist’s name, title, rhymed signature, and signature, presuming that Muhammad Sadiq and Aqa Sadiq are two different artists. Conversely, Azhand (2015) proves the presumption that Muhammad Sadiq and Aqa Sadiq are the same person based on the evidence that supports his idea. In his Divarnegari dar Iran: Zand vs Qajar dar Shiraz [Murals in Iran: Zand and Qajar in Shiraz] (2002), Abdolmajid Sharifzadeh also introduces Muhammad Sadiq and Aqa Sadiq as two different artists congruent with Karimzadeh Tabrizi’s view. The study of Muhammad Sadiq’s diverse works led to the identification of various woven products such as rugs, satchels, saddle blankets, and felt mats. There was a significant relationship between the themes of his works and the portrayed loom-made woven works. In addition to depiction of the interior and exterior spaces, which is a crucial element in selecting woven works, the themes were of significance to the analysis. Saddle blankets as a practical item decorated with gol farang design were the main woven products among works with war themes and exterior settings. Satchels were the principal loom-made woven products among works with mystical themes such as Haft Tanan paintings. Felt mats were found in most of the works that portrayed Karim Khan Zand, indicating their significance in the Zand period, particularly during the reign of Karim Khan Zand and Sadeq Khan Zand. Another interesting point was the depiction of characters from all classes of the society in the paintings and how the woven works were adapted according to their status. Some of Muhammad Sadiq’s artworks are decorated with tiles painted with rug motifs. Some of his court figurative paintings portray the Persian rug of the second half of the twelfth century AH / eighteenth century AD, among which the miniature of Rustam Khan Zand is an excellent instance. Rugs, as Iranian woven products that have the earmarks of Iranian identity, were not observed in miniatures with foreign subject matter. Furthermore, Muhammad Sadiq’s active years during the Zand and Qajar period helped form a comparative analysis of the motifs and designs in woven products like saddle blankets, found in miniatures of the Battle of Chaldiran and the Battle of Karnal in the Qajar Iran. This demonstrated the extent of developments and changes in the appearance of saddle blankets. Given that Muhammad Sadiq lived during the Afsharid, Zand, and Qajar periods in Iran, his works can be seen as reflecting the common woven products of the time. The analysis indicated that in some miniatures, Muhammad Sadiq has determined the position of the woven products in the paintings based on the significance of the subject and the importance of woven works as a cultural element. For example, the rug in Rustam Khan Zand portrait is crucial, among other elements, in conveying an Iranian quality (Iranianness). It occupies a considerable area of the miniature. However, only a small part of the felt mats can be distinguished in the miniatures of Karim Khan Zand. To return to the question on the significance of Muhammad Sadiq’s works in understanding woven products, it can be concluded that the analysis led to new findings about a part of the pictorial history of traditional Iranian woven products of the twelfth century AH considering the variety of themes such as mysticism, love, lyricism, and war in his works as well as his figurative paintings and Muhammad Sadiq’s status as a painter who witnessed most of the twelfth century AH.
Keywords: Muhammad Sadiq(Aqa Sadiq), Paintings Of The Second Half Of The Twelfth Century AH, Handwovens, Zendieh, Motifs, Patterns -
Pages 123-135
According to Heidegger, death is a form of existence that man accepts immediately upon his existence. He introduces man as being-in-the-world. The type of Dasein’s existence in the world is not like other objects in the world. The meaning of possibility is something that Dasein has the ability to become. Dasein stands in the possibility of possibilities, constantly engaging with what it could be. Death is a situation where a person answers the question of who they are. According to Heidegger, Dasein can dominate anything, but death is the only thing that cannot be avoided and always overcomes the power of Dasein. Heidegger believes that Dasein is strongly influenced by death, which is an event that only affects humans and not any other beings. He considers existential death as specific to human beings because humans are the only ones capable of thinking about death; other beings simply perish. Thinking about the event of death is a unique and original act that frees a person from ordinary and mediocre thoughts. Existential death is still a unique experience for each person, one that cannot be taught or repeated. Authentic Dasein also takes into consideration the fact that death does not happen only after the end of life but is an inseparable part of life itself. Being-in-the-world is a way of being, and this inherently includes being-toward-death. Heidegger claims that death is different from the end, which is a kind of transcendental matter. Anxiety causes Dasein to face its true self, and it is determined by what we are anxious about and against. In the phenomenon of existential anxiety, the things that make us anxious seem to vanish, so we appear to be anxious neither because of anything nor against anything. When Dasein is immersed in the people and the world in which it lives, this immersion causes it to escape. Escape is the act of evading the fall from the “being-in-the-world” that it deserves. Therefore, anxiety and falling are opposites. In anxiety, the world is introduced to Dasein in such a way that it loses its previous significance. For this reason, Dasein turns inward, adjusting to its introspective being. Anxiety occurs when all the possibilities of Dasein appear insignificant, and its way of living in the world is revealed as a movement toward death. Japanese cinema is one of the largest and most important film industries in the world, with over a hundred years of history in this field. Directors like Shōhei Imamura and Nagisa Oshima are very prominent in the third generation of Japanese filmmakers. Hayao Miyazaki, a celebrated director and animator, is also a key figure in this tradition. Studio Ghibli, best known for Miyazaki’s work, is behind renowned films like Spirited Away, Howl’s Moving Castle, and My Neighbor Totoro. The studio has officially released 21 animated features. Other prominent works by Miyazaki include Ghost Land, Ponyo, Laputa: Castle in the Sky, Princess Mononoke, and others. Japanese cinema, like other film industries, strives to balance industrial and artistic cinema. Within this context, Japanese animation, or anime, has managed to recreate a world similar to live-action cinema while offering unique narratives. Japan’s animation industry, which combines traditional and indigenous Japanese arts such as Ryukyu and manga (comic books), holds a distinct place in global cinema. In the past, animation in Japan was called Doga, meaning “moving pictures,” but since the 1950s, this term has shifted to “animation.” Osamu Tezuka, initially known as a manga artist and cartoonist, was instrumental in shaping modern Japanese anime. His contributions to the industry were extraordinary, and he is credited with making anime what it is today while popularizing it internationally. Tezuka’s influence continues to inspire creators even after his death. Due to Tezuka’s unexpected passing and Hayao Miyazaki’s subsequent rise, Miyazaki gained the title of “Japan’s Disney.” Miyazaki directed his first film in 1981 and has since created stunning works that explore many philosophical, sociological, cultural, and psychological concepts. In the article discussed here, Howl’s Moving Castle is analyzed based on Heidegger’s philosophy of death and how it is represented in the animation. This study seeks to address the following questions: How is the concept of death defined by Martin Heidegger in Being and Time? How can this view be analyzed within the context of Howl’s Moving Castle? What visual and narrative elements in Howl’s Moving Castle are used to explore existential death? The research uses theoretical and qualitative methods, with data gathered from library documents. A review of existing studies in the Persian language revealed that similar research is lacking, especially in categorizing death based on Heidegger’s philosophy. Existing studies mostly describe Heidegger’s views or compare his ideas with those of other philosophers or poets. Research on Howl’s Moving Castle often focuses on its technical aspects or character analysis from a psychological perspective. However, this article combines both technical and content-based analysis, specifically examining the animation through the lens of Heidegger’s concept of death. In Howl’s Moving Castle, the protagonist, Sophie, experiences existential anxiety and learns to live authentically through her confrontation with death. Sophie initially imagines she has plenty of time and avoids acknowledging her mortality. She continues her life according to predetermined patterns of common reasoning because this way of living feels safe. Sophie avoids anything unpleasant, maintaining her distance from her true self. However, her transformation into an older woman forces her to confront her mortality and the finite nature of life. Sophie begins to realize that she does not have much time to waste. This awareness causes her decision-making and behavior to become more deliberate, responsible, and meaningful. By accepting death, Sophie brings her life to a resolution. The analysis shows that Sophie’s existential death arises from a failure to understand herself. Her aging serves as a reminder of the limited time she has, pushing her toward authenticity. Sophie realizes that the path she had been following is no longer viable, and she must face the anxiety of choosing a new, more authentic path. The journey of Sophie’s character is visually reflected in the animation through her physical transformation. Sophie is depicted as young and energetic at first, then as an old, stooped woman with a wrinkled face, and finally as a revitalized and motivated individual. These changes are accompanied by shifts in the animation’s visual style. Smooth and stable lines transition to curved, broken, and hedged lines. Similarly, the bold and vivid colors that initially dominate the scenes give way to neutral and muted tones, emphasizing the emotional and existential transformation Sophie undergoes. This research concludes that in Howl’s Moving Castle, existential death is closely tied to Sophie’s character development. Her journey toward authenticity is marked by her confrontation with death and her transformation into someone who embraces life with newfound purpose. The visual and narrative techniques employed in the animation effectively depict the themes of existential anxiety and death. By analyzing the animation from Heidegger’s perspective, the study offers a new approach to understanding Howl’s Moving Castle while contributing to the broader discourse on the intersection of philosophy and animation. This research not only highlights the depth of Heidegger’s ideas but also demonstrates how these ideas can be applied to contemporary cultural and artistic works like Japanese animation.
Keywords: Heidegger, Dasein, Existential Death, Anxiety, Miyazaki -
Pages 136-148Introduction
the manuscript of the story of Seyf ol-Molûk and Badi' ol-Jamâl from the One Thousand and One Nights collection belongs to the 10th century AH and the Gurkani School of Painting during Jahangir's reign in India. It is written in Persian in Nastaliq script. The story of Seyf ol-Molûk is about a prince who falls in love with the fairy face Badi' ol-Jamâl. He sets out on a journey to find her and finally gets his wish after suffering much hardship. The migration of artists from the Safavid court to India on the invitation of Gurkani rulers entailed the transfer of many Iranian artistic ideas to the Gurkani School of Painting and the Gurkani kings spread the civilization which bore distinct signs of Iranian artistic skills in India. The traditions of illustration and its artistic values continued to persevere at the heart of the Islamic civilization and artists created admirable works and new experiences. A feature of the Indo-Islamic style is its soft and distinct colors visualizing the people depicted in the scene, while adding depth and perspective by drawing the high horizon line of the landscape. The illustrations in this old version are a fusion of Iranian, Indian, Chinese, and European artistic traditions. Despite these influences, however, the paintings of this period have a distinct Indian spirit. Problem statement: attention to realism arising from European influences is also a special feature of the Gurkani School of Painting displayed in the illustrations of the manuscript of the story of Seyf ol-Molûk and Badi' ol-Jamâl and the documented samples are witness to the study of the lifestyle of people in the Gurkani era. Based on this, characterization and simulation of the human experience is a feature of the Gurkani School of Painting. The 20th century literary theorist, Mikhail Bakhtin, believed that the human experience and how it is perceived by others plays a key role. Bakhtin's philosophical and ontological point of departure relies on the relationship between the self and the other as well as concepts such as dialogue, finding its way into social orientations. The present narrative also focuses on human beings and individual values, trying to connect humans to their environment. Conflict and interaction between characters as independent people and their dealings with others are considered modern concepts of dialogism. Words in relation to other words also form the subtext. Therefore, the liberal approach based on the individual is discarded. What is important to Bakhtin is the type of relationship between people and all the interactions of real life, including art. He bases all the components of his philosophy on the concept of communication and dialogue. The concept of otherness and outside views on cognition is considered one of the most prominent areas of Bakhtin's dialogism in philosophy. Art and life in the time-space chronotope are elements that respond to the human lived experience. Both are forms of representation which can only be understood in dialogue. Hence, awareness of the truth becomes possible with the help of others, objectified in the reciprocal relationship between the individual and society, and carnivalism in opposition to official fêtes is celebrated as a temporary liberation from the established order with the aim of destroying the ruling authority. Based on a special model of the spectacle, the carnival also borders between art and life. By presenting the concept of medieval carnivals in line with the theory of the grotesque, Bakhtin brings a liberating experience to human beings in the transition from one form to another, indicating an ease of artistic imagination and joyful liberation from conventional limitations. The grotesque in the arts and literature is also considered a push-and-pull, change, or major confusion. Goals: this research aimed to analyze the concept of otherness and carnivalism in the manuscript of the story of Seyf ol-Molûk and Badi' ol-Jamâl based on Bakhtin’s thought. Question: The main question of the present research is how to analyze the relationship between the self, other, and carnivalism in the text and illustrations of the manuscript of the story of Seyf ol-Molûk and Badi' ol-Jamâl based on Bakhtin’s thought, and how to investigate the expression of its similarities and differences in the narration of the story and type of illustrations in this version?
Research Methodologythis is a descriptive research with an analytical approach. Data was collected in libraries by note-taking and image reading. The qualitative data analysis method was used.
ResultsThe findings of the research show that the relationship between the self and the other can be discussed in a reciprocal connection between form and content in the manuscript of the story of Seyf ol-Molûk and Badi' ol-Jamâl. Therefore, dialogism between the narrative elements and illustrations of this ancient version is objectified with the presence of others and reveals a specific position. Describing a different aspect of Seyf ol-Molûk’s life as a prince who sets out on a journey in search of his beloved Badi' ol-Jamâl turns the monologic discourse into a polyphony in the context of carnivalism. The most important function of the carnival spirit is breaking down borders and disregarding the hierarchy of power. Among its features, one can name the mask, celebration, multiplicity of characters, and confrontation between life and death. The diversity of characters has expanded the carnival world in the work and set the stage for a deep and lasting connection in the illustrations and narration of the story. Power has been mocked and people have been focused on in the carnival spirit. The illustrations of the story of Seyf ol-Molûk and Badi' ol-Jamâl in the One Thousand and One Nights collection are a measure of culture and analysis of confrontational dialogue between people and abominable creatures who are colorful at the same time, accompanied with the dual sensation of the positive and negative. The figure of a div with human and animal characteristics displaying grotesque features is central to the narration and its characterization. Another point in Seyf ol-Molûk attaining individual consciousness as a powerful prince is the principle that only another person can make it possible to attain consciousness. Therefore, the absence of a monologic discourse and hearing the voice of the other character outlines the significance of the relationship between the self and other, and putting forward the idea of carnivalism leads to the displacement and reversal of the existing affairs in the narration and characterization of the manuscript of Seyf ol-Molûk and Badi' ol-Jamâl. This, in turn, reverses all values. The illustrations depict the stories of reality and the supernatural, love and marriage, power and punishment, and wealth and poverty; and by plotting one story after the other, it leans towards the displacement and reversal of affairs. At the same time, creating different qualities of carnivalism such as dual characters displays festive elements and rebellious traits in the narration of the story. The defamiliarization value of the illustrations is in the use of elements of carnivalism for the body of characters, focusing on the human form and attributes. The exhilaration seen in the animal forms combined with human characteristics can be a sign of renewal, which is in agreement with Bakhtin's theory of the grotesque. This is why conditions for the structure of the dialogue reveal a facet of death and rebirth in the spirit of carnival.
Keywords: Otherness, Carnival, Manuscript, Seyf Ol-Moluk, Badi’ Ol-Jamal, Bakhtin -
Pages 149-165
What distinguishes the inscriptions on the inner border of slip-painted potteries from other decorative Kufic inscriptions is the concave shape of the surface. Because by reducing the diameter of the plates, the horizontal baselines and consequently the base of the writing elements are rounded and parallel to the vertical baselines are affected by the perspective to the centripetal point of the dish. Therefore, among the principles of calligraphy, the rule of good layout (Ḥosn-e ważʿ) is overshadowed. Accordingly, the main purpose of this paper is a structural criticism and formal analysis of the decorative Kufic inscriptions of Samanid slip-painted potteries based on the principles and rules of calligraphy and the principles of the epigraphy based on the rule of good layout, through the composition (Tarkīb) and baseline (Korsī). In order to know the technical values, the visual qualities, and the aesthetic aspects the current article also seeks to answer these two questions; "What are the structure and features of the decorative Kufic scripts of slip-painted potteries according to the rule of good layout?" and "What effect have these features had on the visual quality and aesthetic aspects of the inscriptions?" So, the present study analyzed 17 slip-painted potteries from the Samanid era (9th and 10th century AD/ 3rd and 4th century AH) with the Kufic inscriptions with a descriptive-analytical approach and through library studies. In general, Kufic elements are imprinted on these potteries in three central, radial and peripheral positions. Among these, only the inscriptions on the inner border of the potteries that were written using the stencil technique were selected (applying a thick layer of color and removing waste by using a sharp tool). In this article, first, the twelve principles of calligraphy were briefly defined such as qowwa (boldness), żaʿf (faintness), saṭḥ (straightness), dawr (roundness), ṣoʿūd (heightening), nozūl (lowering), nesba or tamāsob (proportion), tarkīb (composition), korsī (baseline), oṣūl (elements), ṣafā (refinement) and šaʾn (dignity). Then, based on the priority and its limitations in inscriptions, it was concluded that the best criterion for measuring inscriptions is the rule of good layout. According to the opinions of Ibn Muqla and Abū Ḥayyān Tawhīdī, good layout is under two general rules of composition (Tarkīb-e kollī: Tansīl or Tansīq and Tarkīb-e jozʾī: Taʿlīf or Tafrīq) and baselines (Tasteir or Tawfiq) and they indicate. In the studied inscriptions, all single letters (Mufradat) are subordinate to vertical and circular horizontal baselines. The tall letters (Alifat, Afrashtes) are placed in the range of middle to upper baselines and belong to the dominant radial and perspective axes. Elongations (Maddat) are also located due to the concave of the horizontal baselines and the intersection of the vertical baselines. Round letters (Davayer) are in line with vertical and horizontal baselines. Two types of connections link the writing system and the decorative system. The first type of connection, Dāng (the width of the pen) does not change much and in terms of substance, it follows the structure of the script. This creates various types of knotted Kufic, interlaced (Muaqqad) and intertwined (Mushabbak). The second type is a connection in which the width of the pen has a noticeable change, and it brings out the nail-shaped (Muzahhar) foliated (Muvarraq) and floriated (Muzahhar) Kufic. The decorations of the tall letters are nail-shaped, foliated and floriated, but the interference of written and geometrical elements also leads to knotted forms, which are usually done between the middle and upper baseline - the middle third. Semi-tall letters (Nim-afrashtes) are often nail-shaped and foliated and do not exceed the subsidiary middle baseline. Elongations are sometimes closed with floriated 's rising spiral decorations, which creates a balance between positive and negative space. Sometimes, contrary to the elongated nature of the elongations, the decorative system is connected to the main body of script with the last ascent with the vertical baseline and goes up to the uppermost baseline. The circular letters have foliated and floriated decorations that go all the way to the upper baseline. But inverted circular letters only end with foliated decorations and usually the elongations before them have decorative additions. Circular letters sometimes retain the inherent aspect of their form when facing decorations; That means if the decoration is removed, the readability of the letters will not be reduced. Sometimes the legibility of circular letters depends more on the decorative system and if the decorations are removed, they lose their essence. The third group of circular letters is also written simply and almost regularly, and additional decorations are added with a little distance from the main body of the letters. These joints usually go beyond the first baseline and settle between the subsidiary horizontal and uppermost horizontal baselines. Composition in decorative Kufic -unlike the six scripts- does not adhere to certain rules and restrictions; It means that the letters can be elongated anywhere in the word or sentence, join the decorative elements or become a decorative system. For this reason, the Epigraphists took advantage of this characteristic of Kufic in the composition and used symmetry, balance, equipoise, repeat and rhythm. Symmetry -does not mean the exact matching of the letters on both sides of the axis, but their formal similarity- in the two main vertical (Alifat) and horizontal (Maddat) movements on the axis of symmetry of the vertical baselines (tangent to the diameter of the imaginary circle in the dishes) have appeared. The tall letters are written parallel to the vertical baselines, and in the symmetry of each one, usually another tall letter, a circular letter or an elongated letter is placed; which has reached the uppermost baseline due to the plant decorative system. Also, according to the criterion of the vertical baseline, the elongations are symmetrical on the middle baseline. Foliated and floriated additional decorations play a significant role in the symmetry of the composition; Because it compensates for the length difference of the letters and parallels the elongation of the Maddat in the middle baseline, it gives coherence to the decorative system on the uppermost baseline. Repetition, as one of the factors affecting symmetry, can be seen in the writing and decorative system of these inscriptions. The tall letters (especially alif (ا) , lām (ل) or twisted lām-alif (لا)) are stretched evenly and symmetrically, usually from the middle of the middle baseline to the uppermost baseline. The base of the elongations such as the belt around the dishes is swept and in parallel with those separated decorative elements, are placed in the first and second baselines. In addition, the floriated decorations have reached an upper baseline with the uptrend of letters, and its stems have been repeated. Semi-tall letters and circular letters have been written at certain distances on the middle baseline, leading to a rhythmic repetition and symmetry generally. The proper placement of these elements is the result of the predetermined elongation of Maddat and maintaining the distance between the letters. Symmetry and repetition have created a kind of continuity, unity and harmony in the inscription, it has led to the equality of positive and negative spaces (blackness and whiteness or sawād o bayāż) and has caused balance and equipoise. Due to the systematic and regular positioning of the written and decorative system on the horizontal baselines, by moving to upper baselines, decorations move more freely and thus reduce the visual weight. The combination of geometrical and writing system is done either in elongations or in the tall letters which have a base on a middle baseline. The knotted decorations, which are visually heavier, are also based on the middle baselines. In this way, it can be concluded that baselines have played a prominent role in the equipoise of visual elements.
Keywords: Epigraphy, Decorative Kufic, Good Layout, Composition, Slip-Painted Pottery -
Pages 181-195
Handicrafts indicate the relationship between humans and their environment and manifest the identity, culture, skills, and attitudes of individuals in a region during different periods. A historical look at handicrafts in various eras reveals that this component has been adaptable to the conditions and requirements of each era. In other words, handicrafts, by being present in people's lives, have addressed the essential needs of societies and preserved and adapted themselves accordingly. This art industry, in the past, primarily aimed to fulfill needs and later became a means of income generation by utilizing raw materials from the surrounding environment. However, it appears that in current circumstances, the nature of handicrafts has transformed, and various factors influence its presence and continuity. Nowadays, in the modern world, societies consider handicrafts not only as economically influential but also as a creative cultural phenomenon, a social factor, and an important environmental component. Additionally, handicrafts are recognized as a significant part of indigenous culture and identity. The mentioned factors indicate that handicrafts have high importance from various aspects and now require attention and focus for their continuity and development. In other words, in the current conditions, handicrafts need certain measures, the formulation of principles, and standards to adapt to the current cultural, social, economic, and environmental conditions. According to the mentioned evidence, multiple factors play a role in the sustainable development of handicrafts. It seems necessary to identify and analyze the backgrounds and influential factors in the sustainable development and operation of handicrafts in current conditions through in-depth research. Therefore, this research aims to identify and analyze the factors and backgrounds emphasized in various sources and studies. In this regard, the research question is: What are the influential factors in the sustainable development of handicrafts? This study is a qualitative research and, from an objective perspective, falls under applied developmental research. It has utilized qualitative content analysis to identify the key variables and influential factors in the sustainable development of handicrafts. In other words, this research strives to extract the fundamental concepts and topics related to the sustainable development of handicrafts from credible scientific data. To achieve this, in the first step, reliable research sources in this field were collected from internet databases using relevant keywords. Then, with the aim of categorization and thematic analysis, qualitative content analysis of the data was conducted through stages including data management and organization, refinement and concept extraction, and thematic classification. Finally, relying on logical reasoning, each of the topics was scrutinized, explained, and comprehended. In the categorization and analysis of the topics, the concepts that had the highest applicability and thematic recurrence in most studies were given attention. Furthermore, in the thematic classification, efforts were made to maximize the similarity and resemblance of each issue, and ultimately a comprehensive theme was obtained by combining two or more concepts in that area. Based on this, the findings of the research were categorized and analyzed in topics such as "higher education," "emerging markets," "production methods," "handicraft capture and design," and "co-creation." According to findings, the foundation of handicraft industry development should be considered in the components of education, technology, emerging markets, and effective communication between industry owners and designers. As mentioned, attention to each of these factors forms the basis for transformation in others. In other words, the outcomes and results of each of these components have a common connection with other fields, and the importance of each lies in the attention it receives from others. Higher education nurtures specialized individuals who contribute to the artisan community through co-creation and collaborative efforts. Additionally, higher education provides a foundation for understanding theories and the needs of emerging markets. The emerging market necessitates the effective role of technology and industry in handicraft production. Consequently, the central role of higher education can act as a catalyst and essential requirement for the development of handicrafts. In general, innovative educational systems, by providing action-based teaching methods and processes, innovation, and creativity, will yield the following positive results 1- Providing management and business training to enhance the performance and prosperity of handicraft industries. 2- Transferring innovative production methods and strategies, acquainting with new tools and technologies to create new products and services in the craft industry. 3- Familiarity with current and future market needs. 4- Establishing connections with society and industry to exchange and acquire new knowledge and technologies, as well as developing collaborative projects and research. 5- Enhancing technical knowledge and expertise in the application of materials and tools used in handicrafts. 6- Understanding other related sciences that have an impact on the handicraft industry.It seems that a change in the approach to education and research in handicrafts and the establishment of a common infrastructure for research and education are necessary to connect and strengthen various academic disciplines and create "Craft Sciences" as an approach in the educational system. According to findings, new technologies and production methods also play a significant role in the development of handicrafts. Synchronizing handicraft production methods with advancements in this field in itself contributes to achieving the goals of handicraft development. Innovative technology, advanced industry, and high-quality raw materials increase the capability of producing handicrafts according to international standards, leading to effective and independent performance of handicrafts and improving productivity while reducing resource waste. This component improves supply chain management and control in stages such as raw material extraction, production, distribution, and overall performance and profitability of handicraft products. Reduction in labor, raw material, and energy costs are among the benefits of new technology, which increases the competitiveness and profitability of handicraft businesses. Utilizing media and communication technologies can facilitate the introduction of indigenous products to new communities and markets and improve and deepen business and communication relationships between the industry, business owners, and customers in this field. In general, the use of innovative production methods, advanced machinery, and tools can contribute to innovation, efficiency, quality, and diversity in the production of handicraft products, making these industries stronger in competition with others. Co-creation is also considered an effective solution for the development of handicrafts. The importance of co-creation and collaborative efforts in handicraft development is justified based on several key factors: 1- Improvement of quality: Co-creation can lead to improvement and facilitation in the transfer of knowledge and experience between handicraft producers and various related fields. As a result, the quality of handicraft products will also improve. 2- Diversity and innovation: By integrating different knowledge, experiences, and ideas, new products with new designs and forms can be introduced to the market, positively competing with other countries and contributing to export development. 3- Local economic development: Attracting talents and technical knowledge in rural areas and proper marketing of the produced goods increases the potential for establishing and developing handicraft enterprises in these regions. Consequently, employment, income generation, and a reduction in rural-to-urban migration can be improved. 4- Preservation of culture and identity: When a society loses some of its traditional skills, its culture and identity are also at risk. Co-creation provides an opportunity to preserve and continue these skills and helps the community maintain its cultural identity. Based on this, the practical process of co-creation can act as a solution for the sustainable development of handicrafts.
Keywords: Handicrafts, Sustainable Development, Economy, Culture, Technology -
Pages 196-215
Photography entered Iran in 1842, three years after its invention. With the reigning of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar being started, he soon realized the considerable function of photography in governing the Country, and along with taking photos of his harem and internal parts of his palace, he recruited a number of photographers and sent them all over Iran in order for them to photograph whatever that seemed important and remarkable. Neyshabur was a destination for these photographers, and each of them, according to their goal and knowledge, depicted Neyshabur in their works and photos. With respect to the lack of a source to have investigated the history of photography in Neyshabur, it seems a must to conduct a study as a harbinger of this historiography. Therefore, the present study aims to present the history of photography in Neyshabur in the era of Qajar, and to investigate photography status in Neyshabur in the history of photography of Iran, and to shed light upon its aspects and features. Moreover, through reading the photos taken out of this investigation, and studying its features, reasons, and conditions, it examines the hypothesis whether there are common characteristics in the photographs of Neishabur during the Qajar era that can be listed as the main characteristics of Neyshabour's photography and these characteristics lead us to a single reading of Neyshabour's photography in this period. A different structure is apparently needed to achieve such goals and such a hypothesis, and a number of questions are posed which are answered in each section. In investigating the arrival of photography in Iran, and in a more meticulous look upon the arrival of photography in Khorasan province of Iran, it is aimed to inquire the relationship between the photos of the area with the totality of photography in Qajar’s era. Furthermore, the study aims to study the status of photography of Neyshabur in the history of Khorasan’s photography through collecting historical accounts as to Khorasan’s photography through written and visual sources and with respect to the fact that the possible destination of photographers was Mashhad, on the way of which they passed Neyshabur. Besides presenting the history of photography in Neyshabur, the study helps to gain a more complete understanding of different functions of photography for the King. Taking into account such functions later resulted in forming photo albums of the Qajar era. After identifying the photographers, it seems to be necessary and vital to investigate the lifestyle and the influential factors on their photography along with some themes and quality of photography in the era of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, which plays a decisive role in the process of photo album’s being formed including those of Neyshabur’s, since these pieces of information result in completing other aspects of historiography of photography in Neyshabur, and reading of the photos. Then, taking into account the data and the reading of the photos, and in order to test the research hypothesis, it was aimed to see the reports entailed in Neyshabur’s photos in the Qajar era, along with the goals for which the reports were photographed and their function, the identifiable styles in the photos along with the dominant style of the photos of the era, the photographical arrangements the photographers enjoyed in representing Neyshabur, and ultimately the commonalities in the findings to be accounted as the main features of Neyshabur’s photography in the Qajar era in order to provide a unique reading of Neyshabur’s photography in the Era. This research was done with descriptive-analytical method. Its data has been collected using library documents, Image sources and interviews. The findings of the study revealed that AghaReza Akasbashi (1904), Mirza HussainAli (1921), and AbdullahMirza Qajar (1932) photographed in Qajar’s era in Neyshabur. Based on the information at hand, local and foreigner photographers did not photograph Neyshabur in the era of Qajar. With respect to the fact that the photographs were in line with general goals of trips and missions of those photographers, and taking into account the photos taken by these people, photos of Neyshabur in Qajar’s era can be possibly considered to be paralleled with Iran’s photography. Three categories of pictorial reports were identified in photos, common functions of which can lead to development of awareness and real experience of places and people, along with the chance for observing remote areas including Neyshabur, possibility of a better understanding of kingdom span for the King, maintaining pictorial list and completing visual map, forming pictorial archive of people, and demonstration and announcement of the power of the central government. If photos where the landscapes revolve around historical and religious monuments, palaces, and royal camping could be considered as landscape photography cases, topography yet constitutes the subject of the majority of the photos. In representing Neyshabur of Qajar’s era, other commonalities such as utilizing humans in the frame, writing the captions on the margin or the photos, and composition and point of view were seen in the works of the photographers (Table 2). Of the 23 photos, People and only men were present, four photos were portraits, and presence of people in the other photos was supposed to be used for scaling the monument. People were present as documents, layout, or a combination of both. Composition was seen based on balance and symmetry, and at times similar to each other. In some cases, new frames were seen. Point of view and composition, which were photographers’ choices and out of King’s, were here a tool to show King’s dominance over the place. With approaching the end of Naser al-Din Shah’s era and the position of King’s being weakened as the main axis of vision in the Country, significant changes were seen in choosing a point of view from high. Depending on the presence of the King on the trip, captions were used to serve for enriching the experience and maintaining a better reading of the photo for the King, and to complete citation-based aspect for the future generations. In the photos of AghaReza and Husseinali, captions have been applied inside the photos or on the margins for introducing the place, people, the venue, and indicating the King’s presence (royal camps), while AbdullahMirza Qajar’s photos, through a structured way both visually and in terms of content, introduced the place and the people along with descriptive and detailed information. The captions along with the photos are able to provide comprehensive reports and pieces of information to the King for the trips he wasn’t present on. Similar pictorial reports with common functions, identification of dominant styles in photos and concurrent meanings in selected subjects and commonalities in photographical arrangements such as the quality of representation of people and photo information along the photos, composition, and points of view with similar functions can all be taken into account as the main components of photography of Neyshabur in the Qajar's era, all of which form a unique reading of photography of Neyshabur in the Era. I should note that the findings of the research are based on the reading of taken photos in Neyshabur, and may not be generalizable to other photos in Iran’s history of photography, and yet be facilitator for future research.
Keywords: The History Of Photography Of Neyshabur, Qajar’S Photography, Aghareza Akasbashi, Mirza Hussainali, Abdullahmirza Qajar