پژوهش نامه تاریخ اجتماعی و اقتصادی
سال سیزدهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 25، بهار و تابستان 1403)

The increase in oil prices in global markets in the early 1970s prompted the Pahlavi government, which aspired to reach European standards, to reconsider its plans. Consequently, the fifth development plan, approved by the Senate and the National Assembly in the second half of 1972, was revised. The government claimed that considering the absorptive capacity of the Iranian economy, potential inflation, possible conflicts between rapid growth of resources and production factors, and existing income distribution inequalities, the total investment volume of the government and the private sector was set at approximately 4,699 billion rials (equivalent to about 69.5 billion dollars). However, things did not go according to plan, and when global oil prices fell in 1975, the economic boom came to an end. Thus, the oil revenues injected into the economy over the previous years resulted in nothing but acute inflation. The people faced shortages of essential goods and excessive prices for their purchases. The prices of imported food and the government's failure in agricultural programs further exacerbated the trade balance deficit, leading to increased living costs. Despite the government's attempts to control inflation and rising prices, the economic crisis peaked in 1977. This article seeks to answer the fundamental questions of what caused the shortages and rising prices of food items and what factors contributed to this disorder. What measures were taken to address this crisis and meet the essential needs of the people?Regarding the background of the research, it should be noted that several articles have been written about the economy during the Pahlavi II era, including the article "Application of Edward Shils' New Oligarchic Theory to the Pahlavi II Era (1953-1979)" by Mohammad Radmard (2020), which attempts to align the prominent features of new oligarchic systems from Shils' perspective with the realities of the Pahlavi II era (1953-1979). Ali Voshmeh and colleagues (2017) in their article "Economic Policies of the Pahlavi II Government in Industry with Emphasis on Iran-Germany Relations from 1961 to 1978" sought to answer the question of what quantitative and qualitative transformations the economic policies of the Pahlavi II government, particularly through the use of German industries, brought about in the modernization of Iranian industries. Therefore, regarding the rising prices of essential goods and inflation in the final years of the Pahlavi II regime, a critical period in contemporary Iranian history, no comprehensive and independent study has been conducted so far.   

In this article, the historical research method was employed to analyze the economic crisis and its impact on the rising prices of essential goods and inflation during the final years of the Pahlavi II era. This methodology involved a thorough examination of newspaper reports and archival documents from the period, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of the socio-economic conditions that contributed to the crisis 

 The findings of the research indicate that the surge in oil prices in global markets, coupled with excessive demands from executive bodies, significantly increased the liquidity in the country. This influx of liquidity led to a heightened demand for goods and services, which in turn resulted in an uncontrolled rise in the importation of essential commodities and food products.As the government and various institutions sought to capitalize on the increased oil revenues, they often prioritized immediate consumption over sustainable economic policies. This approach not only exacerbated the dependency on imported goods but also created a mismatch between supply and demand within the domestic market. The overwhelming influx of imported goods, while initially appearing to meet consumer needs, ultimately contributed to a distorted economic landscape.The consequences of this situation were profound, as the rapid increase in imports led to inflationary pressures that affected the prices of essential goods. As the cost of living rose, the purchasing power of the average citizen diminished, leading to widespread dissatisfaction among the populace. The combination of rising prices and stagnant wages created a climate of economic instability, which fueled public unrest and discontent .

The developments in the international oil market between 1972 and 1974, which led to a significant increase in oil prices, prompted the Pahlavi II government to revise the Fifth Development Plan of the country. The total volume of investment from both the government and the private sector was estimated at approximately 4,699 billion rials (equivalent to about 69.5 billion dollars). This ambitious investment plan exceeded the capacity of the Iranian economy and resulted in a substantial decline in growth rates, with the growth rate in the Fifth Plan dropping to half of that in the Fourth Plan. Concurrently, inflation skyrocketed from 2.6% to 24.9%, and the cost of living index for the urban middle and lower classes doubled.The situation became even more critical with the decline in global oil demand in 1975, marking the end of Iran's economic boom. The oil revenues from previous years had already contributed to rising inflation, exacerbating the economic challenges faced by the country. The influx of foreign nationals into Iran further inflated housing prices and rents, as demand surged in urban areas. This led to a significant increase in the migration of rural populations to cities, as individuals sought better opportunities amidst the economic changes.Speculators and brokers in the housing market capitalized on the situation, driving rental prices even higher. Additionally, the prices of imported foodstuffs rose sharply, and the failure of agricultural programs contributed to a growing trade deficit. The combination of these factors created a precarious economic environment, where the rising cost of living and inadequate domestic production capabilities left many citizens struggling to meet their basic needs.

Background

The studies conducted on the function of women's organization often dealt with how this organization was formed in general or the city branches of this organization, such as: Women's rights movement in Iran / Taghian, decline and suppression from 1280 to the 1957 revolution, by Elizeh Sanasarian. ; Iran Women's Organization is the work of Hamira Ranjbar, who has provided a detailed description of the structure and members of this organization. Investigating the performance of the women's organization in the Pahlavi period (case study of Fars: 1345-1357) Asnat Babadi, article on the performance of the women's organization; A case study of Bushehr province (1347-1345) by Elham Malekzadeh, Taybeh Idrisi.

 The purpose of this research is to examine the actions of the women's organization to improve the social status of working women, which despite the important actions that were taken after the formation of Rastakhiz Party, all these actions were marginalized.

This article has been collected with a descriptive-analytical approach and the data is documented and based on library sources.

The women's organization took several important measures to help working women, including the following.1-Establishing a kindergarten: In the first step, by establishing a kindergarten for working mothers, the women's organization solved the concern of the working mother about taking care of the child and did not receive rials from the working women for taking care of the children.2- Compilation of the Labor Law Training Booklet: The Iranian Women's Organization also compiled the book "Working Women's Rights" and tried to educate low-educated and illiterate women about their labor rights by teaching the main provisions of the Labor Law. This book was illustrated and could be very helpful in teaching.3- Literacy: In some centers of the women's organization, literacy classes were held for both working mothers and their children.4- Skilled manpower training: Women's organization in some cities in educational centers gave women training in building electrical wiring, car repair, masonry, building plumbing.

With the formation of Rastakhiz party in 1353, the women's organization suddenly entered the political arena by changing the provisions of this organization. By holding numerous meetings in cities and factories, this organization did more to familiarize women with Rastakhiz Party. The Women's Organization, which recently took minimal measures in the field of the rights of working women and improving their situation and eliminating discrimination; Now he encouraged working women to participate in Resurrection Party and become its members. Afkhami, the Secretary General of the Iranian Women's Organization, has clearly announced that the organization's goals and its involvement in the propaganda of Rastakhiz Party are out of line. In this way, the only institution that could be useful for the working class of women in the absence of trade unions got involved in the country's macro-politics and ceased to continue its services.
Keywords: socio-economic, Iranian women's organization, Mohammad Reza Shah, working women, labor union.

Despite the outbreak of the Second World War (1318-1324/1939-1945) between the United States (Germany, Italy and Japan) and the Allied States (Russia, England, Japan and America), the flames of war and the economic consequences and crises following the war, It also affected some other countries. The entry of Allied troops (especially Russia and England) into Iran in Shahrivar 1941/1320 and the removal of Reza Shah from the throne show that Iran has been affected by the effects of World War politically as well as socially and economically. Russia, in addition to occupying the northern provinces of the country and monitoring the government offices of these areas, monitored the entry and exit of goods and food items and even the movement of people in these areas. The British also had influence and colorful presence in many parts of Iran, especially in the south. The presence of foreigners in Iran and the problems of the Iranian governments in providing the items needed by the people, caused 12 cabinets to come to work within 4 years. This instability of governance and frequent changes were affected by inefficiency in crisis management. Among these crises, the crisis of lack of basic items (such as wheat, sugar, tea, fuel and oil) stood out more. According to the researches that have been done before in the field of lack of basic items such as wheat, sugar, and sugar, the focus of this article is on tea as one of the most consumed basic goods of the people. The spread of tea consumption in the Islamic world has been taking place over many years with ups and downs. In tracking the spread of tea consumption and the hierarchy of distribution of its consumption from the courtiers to the middle classes, various issues such as historical, social, jurisprudential and cultural changes and developments of Islamic societies should be taken into consideration. The popularization of tea consumption in Iranian society, like other Islamic countries, has come a long way from the 10th to the 13th century AH/16-19 AD. The peak of the popularity of tea, at the cost of the abandonment of a more traditional drink, namely coffee, mainly took place at the end of the Qajar era (Metin, "The History of Tea in Iran", 2018, pp. 1 and 2). Despite the innovativeness of the subject of this article and the lack of relevant and independent research background in the field of the tea crisis at the mentioned time, there are cases that mainly use a descriptive approach to express the importance of tea consumption and status among Iranians. Including the article "Tea" written by Peyman Metin, which was published in 2018 in the Big Islamic Encyclopaedia, it has provided valuable information in the field of etymology, the history of tea consumption and cultivation, and the status of its consumption among Iranians. Also, in the article "Tea Preparation Tools" published in the previous work, Nasim Moqrab introduces tea preparation tools at the beginning of tea consumption. The article "Analysis of the evolution of Iranian taste from coffee to tea in the Qajar era" by Sohaila Torabi Farsani and colleagues, has discussed the importance of tea consumption in Iran during the Qajar era and the factors influencing the change of Iranian taste from coffee to tea. The article "Looking at the history of tea and the role of Kashif al-Sultaneh in the revival of this industry in Iran", written by Emaduddin Fayazi and colleagues, has examined the process of planting tea and its arrival in Iran. Contrary to such researches, which have described the place and importance of tea consumption among Iranians, the present research is dedicated to why and how the tea crisis occurred in Iran compared to World War II and the strategies of Iranian governments to control this crisis.   In expressing the importance of this research, aside from the close connection between the lack of basic items and the economic crisis and the need to benefit from historical experiences in economic studies, the place of tea in the Iranian society of those days and the effect of the tea crisis on the lives of Iranians at that time should be considered. . The consumption of tea in Iranian society compared to the Second World War was so high that tea along with sugar was the country's highest import figure. Due to this, Reza Shah was able to finance the construction of the north-south railway from the tax on sugar and tea. At this point, despite the prevalence of tea cultivation and the activity of several domestic tea processing factories, a significant amount of tea was imported due to the impossibility of meeting the country's needs internally or the poor quality of domestic tea.   This research, relying on the contents of documents and newspapers and with a descriptive-analytical approach, tries to answer the question of why and how the tea crisis occurred in Iran during the years 1325-1320. The hypothesis of the research is that external and internal factors have been effective in the emergence and escalation of this crisis, respectively. Factors such as the sharp decrease in the amount of tea imports, the intervention of the Middle East procurement center in the import of tea, the control of the allies over Iran's affairs and the taking of transportation facilities were involved in creating the tea crisis; Also, factors such as hoarding, corruption of government officials, failure to properly implement the government's decisions and measures to resolve the crisis, and monopolization of this commodity were effective in the escalation or consistency of the tea crisis in Iran.

In relation to the background of the research, you can refer to the book "Artificial environment and the formation of the industrial working class", which examines the situation of Abadan workers between the two world wars, "Arayed, an approach to the history of Farudestan (examining the documents of Arayed of the National Assembly)" by Siavash Shohani and... pointed out.

The purpose of the research is to, in line with the research of others about industrial workers, labor unions and their role and influence in political and economic events, about the problems, demands and hidden awareness in the demands of oil industry workers, from the angle of petitions that are a place to express demands. It is a worker, an independent investigation should be done;

The method of the present research is library and documental in terms of its historical nature, and the necessary information has been collected through the review of relevant sources, documents and documents, with a historical and documentary approach. The limits and focal point of spatial, temporal and thematic research, Iran during the second Pahlavi period, from Shahrivar 1320 sh. until the coup d'etat of August 28, 1332 sh.

From the petitions of oil industry workers, it is clear that their expected welfare components include things such as basic promotion including employment, housing, insurance, salary increase and other welfare facilities.The amenities provided by Iran and England Oil Company were either not available to all groups of workers or were not paid equally.Despite suffering repression and losing many of their facilities, the workers did not give in to the oppression of their employers and reached agreements with the company that improved their conditions. They tried to achieve these demands by joining labor unions and strikes, and in cases such as the approval of the labor law in 1325 sh. They were successful in this field, but in the end they could not bring about a fundamental change in labor relations.The weakness of labor organizations, the central government's lack of support for workers, and the misuse of workers by parties were the most important factors in their all-round failure.

According to the survey of complaints, housing, wage increase, health and insurance were among the most important welfare indicators of oil industry workers. The workers were trying to get a part of their rights through various forms of protest, but due to the weakness of the labor organizations, the central government's lack of support for the workers, and the misuse of the workers by the parties, they could not bring about a fundamental change in the labor relations.It is worth mentioning that the study of Subalterns situation by examining documents and documents in all historical periods and especially in contemporary history is one of the original research cases that can be investigated by researchers and leads to the explanation of the policies of the government and the oil industry and the reactions of the workers. Therefore, with social and document-oriented historiography, it is possible to understand the degree of correspondence of historical data transmitted from political history with the narrative of documents.

Introduction:

Monetary policy is the use of government expenditures and revenue-generating activities to achieve specific goals, budget deficit or surplus, and regulation of economic growth and stability. Since in order to fight the economic problems of regulating the government's income and controlling prices, monetary policies are very important levers that if used correctly can contribute to economic, political, social and economic stability and development. The culture of the country should play a very constructive role. In the past, governments usually used specific monetary policies to advance their political goals and run the country. If one of the influencing factors on the monetary policy of any government is the use of currency fluctuations and how to control it. During the Safavid period, due to the formation of tense relations between the two Iranian and Ottoman governments, each of them adopted specific monetary policies towards each other. In this period, because gold and silver ornaments were considered as an intermediary factor in exchanges, they were noticed by the Safavid and Ottoman governments. Also, since the gold and silver required for minting coins in Iran were mostly supplied from outside the country, and one of the ways to enter the country was through the territory of the Ottoman government. Therefore, in order to advance their political and economic goals, these governments took measures that affected their relations by taking advantage of certain policies in the field of conflicts in the event of war and conflict. In this regard, the current research, relying on variables such as the policy of prohibiting the entry and exit of foreign currency, the creation or merger of border mints, the increase of the conversion tariff for muskets, monitoring the value of muskets and paying attention to the silk trade, tries to use historical sources and research. Turkish historians should answer these main questions: what monetary policies did the Safavid and Ottoman governments use against each other? What effect did these monetary policies have on the political and commercial relations of the Safavid and Ottoman governments?

The research method in this research is library and document type.

During war and enmity, the Ottoman government prevented gold and silver from entering Iran in order to advance its political goals and economic sanctions against the Safavid government. In contrast, the Safavid government, in order to bypass the Ottoman trade embargoes, pursued the policy of supplying muskets from inside Iran by extracting new mines and supplying muskets from outside Iran, by expanding trade relations with European countries. In addition, the use of these monetary policies had many consequences for both governments, including the change of Iran's traditional trade routes from the Ottoman territory, the lack of gold and silver coins in Iran, and the relative deprivation of the Ottoman government from the resulting income. Pilgrimage of Hajj and shrines of highness, merger or destruction of mints in two countries, development of silk trade and growth of Iran's trade balance with western countries.

Due to religious and political differences, the Ottoman and Safavid governments always tried to attack each other by using certain monetary policies. The Ottoman government has always taken advantage of monetary policies such as banning the departure of gold and silver coins from its territory, establishing border mints to increase the conversion tariff of coins and reduce the value of coins, increasing the cost of customs, and affecting Iran's trade. He was hitting. On the other hand, the Safavid government, in order to prevent the shortage of foreign currency, adopted special monetary policies, which included: paying attention to the increase of silk exports and the introduction of gold and silver ornaments into the country by changing the traditional trade routes to the north and south. Iran and the expansion of trade relations with the western and northern countries of Iran; Establishing new rules for Iranian pilgrims who were going to pilgrimage and pilgrimage and encouraging pilgrimage to the holy shrine of Imam Reza (a.s.) in Iran.

The Bushehr Bazaar is one of the oldest bazaars on the northern shores of the Persian Gulf. The history of this bazaar dates back to the founding of the Bushehr Port during the Afsharid period, and it further evolved during the Zandiyeh and Qajarid dynasties. During the Pahlavi era, the Bushehr Bazaar underwent numerous ups and downs. Although it had lost its past prosperity, it fell under the strong influence of the dominant discourse of modern Iran, to the extent that other institutions were influenced by it.The purpose of this article, with a focus on the Bushehr market during the Pahlavi era, is to shed light on the aspects and set of supervisory actions of the Pahlavi I government. At the same time, attention has been paid to the question of how the Pahlavi government controlled and supervised the Bushehr market. The Bushehr Iranology Foundation Archive and the National Documents Center and newspapers form the main basis of this research. Newspapers such as the Persian Gulf and Koshesh are among the sources used in this research. A descriptive-analytical approach has been used to advance the research question. These sources have provided new and fresh information about the research. Finally, it seems that in addition to being the center of gravity of commercial and economic activities during the Qajar and early Pahlavi periods, a variety of goods from around the world were offered in the Bushehr market and it was influenced by trade relations with India and the attention of European powers. With the rise of the Pahlavi I, the Persian Gulf commercial hub was transferred from Bushehr to Khorramshahr and Bandar Shahpur, but Bushehr still thrived. The Pahlavi government intensified its supervision of the market by creating new institutions such as the Municipality and the Finance Department, and tried to bring Bushehrs economy under its control. The governments policies on commodity smuggling, commodity pricing, combating overpricing and under-delivery, and addressing food shortages indicate an attempt to regulate the market and address peoples livelihood challenges. In times of crisis, such as the upheaval caused by the fall of the government in September 1941, which led to the collapse of Irans political and economic stability and had negative impacts on the Bushehr market, the government took immediate action, such as drafting by-laws and supervising guilds, to bring order to the chaotic market. They tried to meet peoples needs by importing items such as sugar and wheat. Meanwhile, the government carried out its supervisory activities through the Municipality, which was the driving force behind the Bushehr market. Therefore, in order to supervise the market, the government had to take important steps such as a series of deterrent actions to control commodity smuggling, price commodities in the market, regularly visit shops, census shops, address shortages such as food shortages, and confront hoarders and overpricers, organize active guilds in the market, and organize and prepare a charter for coffee houses, cookhouses, and barbershops.The Bushehr Chamber of Commerce also improved the situation by liberalizing monopolized goods such as sugar, sugar cubes, and tea. Commercial ships, and even English ships, docked at the Bushehr pier and unloaded their cargoes, which included sugar, wheat, and other essential items. This led to an increase in the flow of goods into the Bushehr market.The collective efforts of the municipality and market inspectors yielded positive results. Food shortages were largely addressed, and more items were made accessible to the public. Similar measures were taken to reduce the prices of other essential commodities. Despite these efforts, challenges persisted. A scarcity of bread and cereals led to public discontent. The shortage of rice also resulted in hoarding and economic strain on citizens. To address these issues, rice was imported from other cities, and rationing of sugar was implemented.The Bushehr Municipality and the Finance Administration, along with other institutions, made relentless efforts to improve the situation. Regular health inspections and supervision were part of these efforts. However, the market remained unstable, and complete satisfaction among the people was not achieved, but these same actions in the field of market services and its non-closure as the economic center and the beating heart of the city were achieved.

In this article, we examine socioeconomic matters within the context of Ilkhanid-era political literature, focusing on Vassaf Shirazi's treatise, "Tīḡ va Qalam." This work epitomizes the political debate genre of its time and necessitates a multifaceted analysis. Through the exploration of the treatise, which centers on the conflict between military forces, symbolized by the blade (Tīḡ), and bureaucratic elites, represented by the pen (Qalam), the following questions arise: How are the socioeconomic challenges, resulting from land transfers and the exchange of state responsibilities for services under a military feudalism framework, depicted within the text? Additionally, what potential resolutions are proposed to address these issues, and how are they conceptualized and portrayed within the treatise?Based on the historical explanatory approach, our research hypothesis posits that during the final decades of the Ilkhanid era, military personnel expanded their economic roles beyond traditional military duties by receiving land and occasional provincial governance from the Ilkhan in exchange for their services through the iqta' system. The conflict between the sword and the pen, as presented by Vassaf, elucidates the deep divisions and fractures within the Ilkhanid governance under the emerging class of military landholders, as well as its influence on social crises and issues. Ultimately, this examination seeks to shed light on potential solutions that were proposed to surmount these challenges.The death of Ghazan and the subsequent relaxation of oversight over military landholders led to the iqta policy's consolidation of the military landholding aristocracy's power. This development weakened central authority and significantly augmented the faction's influence within the Ilkhanid government. The resultant imbalance posed an escalating threat that significantly contributed to the decline and eventual collapse of Mongol rule. Moreover, it engendered social unrest, political instability, and heightened insecurity throughout Iran.Additional research findings suggest that Vassaf's motivations for penning the treatise "The Sword and the Pen" were multi-faceted. Key objectives included reducing the threat posed by the increasingly powerful Mongol military aristocracy and their decentralizing inclinations, bolstering the theory of Iranian-style kingship, and advocating for centralized governance under the sovereign's authority. By curtailing the dominance of the decentralized Mongol military aristocracy, Vassaf sought to mitigate social harm and maintain the cohesion of the Ilkhanid state. However, these dynamics ultimately contributed to the fragmentation of the state, paving the way for the emergence of new governing entities and dynasties such as the Jalayirids, Chobanids, Togha-Teimurs, Jani-Qurbanis, and others that managed to seize power and establish control.

Anatolia had a strategic position due to its location between the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and the Aegean Sea and because of this position, it was the place of political competition for various governments such as the Hittites, the Lydians, the Persians, the Romans, the Byzantines, and the Turks. In addition, Anatolia was economically important because it was the closest communication route between East and West and the Silk Road also passed through it. Possession of such positions always leads regional powers to fight over the dominance of Anatolia. The arrival of the Seljuk Turks in Anatolia was part of the regional powers' attempt to dominate this region.The attempt of the Seljuk Turks to dominate Anatolia was accompanied by continuous wars between the Muslims and the Byzantines for several centuries. The result of these wars was destruction and population reduction in this region. This incident caused the trade routes that passed through this area to lose their past importance. Nevertheless, the establishment of the Seljuks of Anatolia in Anatolia and the confirmation of their position in this region in the long term led to the prosperity and revival of the commercial economy of this region. This renaissance started with the reign of Qalich Arslan II and laid the groundwork for creating a new chapter in the life of the commercial economy of Anatolia.In restoring Anatolia's international commercial position and its role as a transit bridge during the Seljuks of Anatolia era, the revival of Anatolia's internal commercial economy under the influence of the Seljuks of Anatolia government had a great role. Based on this, the aim of this research is to investigate the effective factors in the revival of the commercial economy of Anatolia during the Seljuks of Anatolia era. Based on this goal, this research aims to answer this question. What factors have been effective in the revival and prosperity of the commercial economy of Anatolia during the Seljuks of Anatolia period?

The purpose of this research is to investigate the effective factors in the revival of the commercial economy of Anatolia during the Seljuks of Anatolia period. The method used in this research is the historical research method. Historical research method is a method in which research is done on a specific topic that happened in the past and at a specific point in time. The researcher's effort in the historical research method is to present the past facts in an orderly and objective manner through collecting information, evaluating and checking the accuracy of this information, combining valid reasons and analyzing them, and defensible research results. draw conclusions in relation to the special assumptions of the research.

Since ancient era, Anatolia has become a center for international trade due to its geographical location in the vicinity of the Black and Mediterranean seas and because it was the connecting point and bridge between Asia and Europe. This commercial center declined due to the weakening of the Byzantine Empire on the eve of the Seljuks of Anatolia establishment in Anatolia. This decline intensified after the Seljuk wars with the Byzantine Empire and Anatolian local governments. Under such conditions, revival and prosperity of the Anatolian commercial economy was necessary for the Seljuks of Anatolia government.This important thing was realized during the Seljuks of Anatolia era due to four factors that took place by the Seljuks of Anatolia sultans and their agents. Construction and public benefit measures such as the construction of caravanserais, zawiyas and bridges were one of the four factors effective in the revival and prosperity of the commercial economy of Anatolia. The conquest of commercial and coastal cities was another effective factor in the revival and prosperity of the commercial economy. The Seljuks of Anatolia tried to unify the commercial economy of Anatolia by capturing commercial cities and coastal cities of commercial importance under their rule, and by creating an integrated economic zone, they helped to revive and prosper the commercial economy of this region during their rule.Affected by such factors During the Seljuks of Anatolia era the commercial economy of Anatolia was revived and regained its prosperity. It was while the commercial economy of Anatolia as a result of the continuous wars between the Muslims and the Byzantines for several centuries suffered destruction, decreased population and lost its past commercial position and importance in the world economy as a bridge between Europe and Asia Before the establishment of Seljuks of Anatolia rule in Anatolia. As a result of the realization of this important during the Seljuks of Anatolia era, Anatolia was able to revive its position as one of the international trade centers on the open silk trade route. After the establishment of the Seljuks of Anatolia government and as a result of this government's actions to promote the commercial economy of this region, Anatolia gained its position as one of the international trade centers along the Silk Road.

The expansion of Iran's relations with the West since the Naseri period made Iranian educated people more familiar with the society and new political and economic ideas common in the West, and newspapers were one of the modern means of information that could draw people's attention to the state of political backwardness and attract the economy of the country and familiarize the traditional society of Iran with modern ideas. Journals such as Soraya, Akhtar, Habalul Matin, Parvesh, etc. played an important role in the beginning of reforms and economic modernization during the Mozaffari period. Economy was one of the topics that the intellectual class and journalists of the Qajar period had a special view on. Some of the writers and editors of newspapers such as Kashani and Taher Tabrizi were from the tradesmen's class and were experts in economic matters, and they closely witnessed the backwardness of Iran and the progress and economic developments of Europe. Most of the newspaper readers in that period consisted of businessmen, statesmen and intellectuals, for this reason, newspaper writers believed that by writing economic articles, they could direct investments and cause the development and growth of science and industry. The Naseri era coincided with the era of industrial capitalism in Europe and America, while Iran's economic system was based on subsistence agriculture with a feudal lord system and a pastoral economy, and with the increase in Iran's foreign trade with Europe and the evolution of the global capitalist system, Iran inadvertently entered the economic cycle. Internationalization and integration in the globalized economy and the context of Russian and British domination over the Iranian market and taking control of the country's economic artery brought the country's natural economic growth out of balance. And merchants were the first to open the feet of commercial capital to agricultural products. Granting economic concessions and taking foreign loans and the government's inability to support industries and trade during Naseri and Mozaffari eras were other factors of the country's economic collapse. The existence of economic problems caused newspapers to pay attention to the causes and roots of these problems and provide ways to overcome these problems. This article aims to examine the economic situation of Iran in the three fields of agriculture, trade and industry, relying on press sources and from the perspective of a number of Mozafari period newspapers, and answer these questions: The economic situation of the country from the perspective of the media of the era How was Mozaffari? The economic approach of newspapers of that period was influenced by which economic ideas? The hypothesis of this research is that some writers and managers of Navandish newspapers were experts in economic issues and were familiar with economic ideas due to their connection with Western civilization, especially the ideas that They emphasized on self-sufficiency and free trade and maintaining economic security. The research findings of the article show that the authors of these journals were familiar with Iran's economic issues, and while being aware of the political and economic developments in the world, they were also aware of the economic ideas of the West and European financial institutions. Iranian gentlemen and capitalists should be aware of it. With this point of view, while finding the root of the economic problems, the press also put forward reform and modern proposals in the newspapers to get out of it, which seems to be influenced by the economic ideas of the West. Background of the research: Many books and articles related to the Qajar period have been written by foreign and domestic authors, which also contain economic reports and researches. For example: Cities and Trade of Iran in the Qajar Period by Keith Abbott (2016), which contains commercial and financial reports in a period of time (1866-1847). The book "Peaceful influence until under protectorate" (1860-1919) by Wilhelm Leitin (1367. It has been researched in Mozafari period. Ganj Shaygan by Mohammad Ali Jamalzadeh (1362) . The ideas of classical economists in the writings of elite journalists of the Qajar period from the Nasrid era to the constitution" by Ali Begdali (2013), "The role of the government and the people in the economy from the perspective of Akhtar newspaper" by Abdul Mahdi Rajaei (2010).

Pīshkesh, a traditional structure in Iran, was also prevalent during the Safavid period. Influenced by the cultural changes of Perso-Turkish patterns in post-Islamic Iran, this tradition emerged as a tax with various functions. Among these, meeting the financial needs of the court was one of its most important roles. This essay focuses on the characteristics and financial functions of Pīshkesh, aiming to shed light on some unexplored aspects within the internal structure of the Safavid government. It also considers the economic ramifications of Pīshkesh as well as its political and cultural connotations. As the study shows, Pīshkesh contributed to the financial expenses of the Safavid government. For instance, on special occasions like Nowruz and coronation ceremonies, significant gifts were donated to the Safavid monarchs. Interestingly enough, both the state (specifically the Shâh) and the donors benefited from Pīshkesh. The state used this mechanism to strengthen its financial power, while donors improved their political standing. Consequently, the Safavid administrative structure, which directly benefited from this valuable source, sought to increase Pīshkesh contributions. This situation inevitably led to financial corruption. The Safavid period has been less examined from the perspective of issues such as Pīshkesh. This essay attempts to view the Safavid period from a less political angle.

As historical research, this study is based mainly on first-hand sources in Persian. A bunch of literary sources such as travelogues, historiographical narratives, administrative compendiums and diplomatic reports are commissioned to frame the factual structure of the study. In order to attain the purposes, a variety of literary materials has been extracted from the historiographical texts, travelogues, and administrative booklets constitute the factual basis of the research. From the analytical point of view, an explanatory-descriptive approach is employed to address the research question. It is noteworthy that historiographical sources provide limited information about Pīshkesh, whereas travelogues offer extensive insights in this field.Literature Review:The Safavid period has been a fascinating topic for Iranian scholars and their orientalist colleagues from all over the world. Among these scholars, some have studied the entire Safavid era, including political, economic, and other issues. N. Falsafi, E. Eshraqi, Roger Savory, H. R. Roemer, M. Sefatgol and recently Andrew Newman can be enumerated within this category. Other scholars focused more on economic issues, examining the government from an economic perspective. Among Iranians, M. E. Bâstâni Pârizi was a pioneer scholar who in his classic Eqtesad va Siyasat dar Iran-e ‘Asr-e Safavi explored different aspects of economic life of Safavid Iran in relation with the political sphere. Ronald W. Ferrier, Willem Floor and Rudi Matthee are some western scholars who have dealt with the socio-economic aspects of Safavid Iran. These scholars mostly focused on trade and commercial issues as well as their diplomatic ramifications. Not surprisingly, some of these scholars have studies Pīshkesh and its functions within the more inclusive framework of Safavid administration and political system. Yet, no one appropriated an independent study to this subject. Considering this lack, the present paper has focused on Pīshkesh (Gift) and its functions. It aims to illuminate the financial, political, and cultural dimensions of the Safavid period. Pīshkesh is considered a tool for understanding cultural issues.

In conclusion, Pīshkesh contributed to the financial expenses of the Safavid government. For example, on special occasions like Nowruz and coronation ceremonies, significant gifts were donated to the Safavid monarchs. Both the state (specifically the Shâh) and the donors benefited from Pīshkesh. The state used it to strengthen its financial power, while donors improved their political standing. Consequently, the Safavid administrative structure, which directly benefited from this valuable source, sought to increase Pīshkesh contributions, leading to inevitable financial corruption. Additionally, this essay considers the role of Pīshkesh in the power relations of the Safavid government. Some statesmen used Pīshkesh to maintain or improve their office positions. Thus, the essay adopts a two-sided perspective: Pīshkesh had both financial and political functions. Furthermore, some cultural issues can be understood through Pīshkesh, highlighting its complexity and multifaceted nature.

The establishment of Companies in the Qajar period is due to Iran's commercial position. The neighborhood of Iran and Russia and the need of these two countries for each other's products made Iranian and Russian businessmen to exchange commercial products. Iranian merchants were connected with Russian and European merchants through the sea routes and the Northern Sea, as well as the Oman Sea and the Persian Gulf and internal routes. During the Qajar period, the main goods imported from the north were sugar and spices and cloth from the south. The favorable commercial position of Iran, especially during the Qajar period, provided the foundation for the establishment of Companies with commercial use and exchange. Ettehadieh Company started its business and exchange activity in Tabriz and expanded in Tehran. This research aims to explain the trade routes and the importance of Companies, to deal with the activity of Ettehadieh Company of the union with the method of historical analysis and by referring to the family documents of Ettehadieh Company and to answer the question, what role did the trade routes play in the development of Ettehadieh Company? It is assumed that the insecurity of the internal roads and their unsuitable conditions for the passage of goods had faced obstacles to the trade union's activity, which slowed down their activity, of course, the political system ruling Iran was also not unaffected. Many articles and books have been written in the field of commercial economy and foreign trade, each of which examines an aspect of this issue. Several researches have been written about the economic history of Iran during the Qajar period and have described events such as the granting of commercial concessions, the influence of the Russian Borrowing Bank and the Shahshahi Bank in the Iranian economy, or the commercial or urban trade. However, in none of these researches and other sources, there has been no analytical and coherent research on the ways used in foreign trade relying on Ettehadieh Company. This article, with an analytical approach and based on the business documents of the private archive of Ettehadieh Company, aims to investigate the business methods used in this period, while explaining the operation of the Ettehadieh Company and to answer these questions about the role of trade routes in the development or non-development of foreign trade And what role did the trade routes play in the development of Ettehadieh Company activity? The hypothesis suggests that trade routes played an important role in the development of trade, but the political system ruling Iran and the government's lack of attention to the reconstruction of trade routes caused the lack of prosperity in trade in Iran This research was conducted using the library method and historical documents are the most important documents used in the research and its innovation is the use of documents of Ettehadieh Company, which have been provided to the author from the family's personal collection

Although the government's Program ning system in Iran is very old from a historical point of view, but the efforts to program the economic development and Program ning thinking in Iran in its new form since the early years of the period Pahlavi started. During the Pahlavi era and from 1942 to 1978, five development programs were compiled, approved and implemented. The first(1949/1955) and the second(1956/1962) development program are the beginning and consolidation of the development program in the history of Iran. Although these seven-year Program s did not achieve the expected results, they have an important position because they initiated the transformation in the country's Program ning system. The third(1962/1968) and fourth(1968/1973) development program were also among the successful programs of the Pahlavi era, so that the third Program , as the first comprehensive development program of Iran, surpassed the targeted growth rate by 6%, And the fourth development program has been the most successful program in Iran in terms of economic growth. After the preparation of the fifth(1973/1978) development program, internal and international developments created a gap between the managers of the program organization and the country's government, so that this program was fundamentally revised one year after its approval and implementation. This program is the first and only development program in Iran so far that was revised. The purpose of this research is to answer the question, what factors caused the fifth development Program  to be modified?. Examining the studies and research conducted in the field of development Program ning during the Pahlavi era shows that most of the studies focused on the reasons for the failure of development programs. But the distinguishing feature of the present research is that it is devoted to the investigation of the reasons for revising the fifth development program after its approval and implementation, and not the reasons for the failure of the program. 

This qualitative research has been carried out by analytical-descriptive method.Documents are in the category of textual paradigms, which are an inseparable part of other systems and structures in the organization. In this way, they define the understanding of specific issues and describe various behaviors and ways of doing things. Therefore, the information that these documents provide to researchers is more comprehensive than the information that researchers obtain through interviews or questionnaires. 

The results showed four factors 1. The increase in oil prices in the world markets and the growth of Iran's foreign exchange earnings. 2. The government's interest in industrial and infrastructure development in an all-round and accelerated manner. 3. Disagreement between the political officials and managers of the program and budget organization and 4. Combining the five-year program  with the annual budget , The main factors of revision in the fifth construction Program  have been.

The fifth development Program , as the last implemented Program  of the Pahlavi era, was the only Program  that was fundamentally revised in that period. The sharp rise in global oil prices in the first year of the implementation of the program led the government to the conclusion that in order to achieve comprehensive development, revisions should be made in the program. In addition to these cases, the disagreements of managers of the program and budget organization with political officials and the need to align construction Program s with annual budgets were among the most important reasons for revising The fifth development Program . Among these four factors, the sharp increase in oil prices played a more effective role in persuading the country's administration to revise the fifth development Program .