نشریه نقد زبان و ادبیات خارجی
سال بیست و یکم شماره 33 (پاییز و زمستان 1403)

This article examines the issue of consciousness in The Bone Clocks written by David Mitchell as a metamodernist novel. Specifically, this article first defines consciousness and observes the characteristics of the issue of consciousness in this new era. Then, recognizing specific modernist and postmodernist characteristics of the researched work, shows how some metamodernist elements, especially in the issue of consciousness, are changed by modernist elements and to what extent these elements fluctuate between modern and postmodern eras. Rereading this novel with a metamodern perspective, the authors prove that, knowing about a person’s previous behavior leads to the prediction of his future behavior, hence, it is easy to gain awareness of his choices, which is the reason consciousness in the characters of this novel is inculcated. In this article, the authors aim to challenge metamodern theory and conclude that in this era, consciousness is predetermined, optional, and inculcated.

Background of the Study:

David Mitchell refuses the old rules and commits to the fact that death is not the end of consciousness; quite contrary, it can emerge as a god-like, incarnated presence in another shape. Sami Paavilanin also insists on this fact in Mitchell’s novel in which he represents beings who are the incarnation of old selves. He claims that the presence of Atemorals and Horologists in this novel can defend the idea that consciousness can be relocated from one body to another. Also, metamodernist writers utilize a kind of stream of pre-consciousness to refer to the characters’ instincts, that they were aware of the consequences even before they commit to action; however, they intend to manipulate this fact. None of the previous studies in the field of metamodernism examined the roots of this pre-consciousness, though this article aims to conceptualize this very fact.

Irma Mayer believes that analyzing a text, a metamodernist must redeploy between modernism and postmodernism, then decide which can offer a better solution to the problem. Oscillating among different poles and recognizing the binaries can help to evaluate the characters’ behaviors regarding consciousness. In the 2010 article ‘Notes on metamodernism’, Vermeulen and Van den Akker argue that metamodernism is a concept which “oscillates” between modernism and postmodernism and they describe it as a “structure of feeling” (101). They state that “metamodernism should be situated epistemologically with (post)modernism, ontologically between (post)modernism, and historically beyond (post)modernism” (101), which suggests that they believe it is possible to go back to modernism, while also acknowledge that modernism is something of the past. Other thoughts such as Bourdieu’s ideas on habitus and the game that each field presents to the characters, as well as Zizek’s idea of the real enlighten how the writer justifies the characters’ consciousness.

Although the consciousness of the characters in this novel appears forced, at the same time they are considered optional, because the choice is theirs from the very beginning. In this article, it was suggested that in the metamodern era, opposite poles are in flux, and unlike the postmodern era, which considered feelings and emotions to be invalid, the current era has put the mental position of the characters in relation to each other and wants to be emotional and arouse emotions. Another point that this work portrayed was that everyone has a version of reality; therefore, the characters reached their mental awareness according to what was objective for them. The external events are not unaffected and in fact, it is the external events that control the consciousness, though, at the same time it is an internal and instinctive consciousness. This pendulum-like swing between polar opposites aptly captures the mutual characteristics of both/neither dynamic.

In Julia Kristeva’s conception of the abject, anything that falls outside the normativity of a dominant system is dubbed as repulsive and deplorable. Abject subjects are the subjects who are rejected by society because of their heterogeneity; ironically, sometimes they resort to crime to get back into the society, but the transgression usually lead to further exclusion and abjection. The present research endeavors to trace and comment on the manifestations of Kristeva’s notion of abjection in Gholam Hossein Saedi’s The Dump (1966) and realize how certain characters of the narrative are abjectified and how they respond to their sense of abjection.

Background Studies: 

There have been only a few studies on Saedi’s The Dump and most of the relevant critical surveys have tried to expose its realistic and naturalistic overtones. In their “Psychological Analysis of Characters of Three Stories from Gholam Hosein Sâedi (Beggar, Destitute, and Garbage Can) According to Karen Horney’s Theory,” Jalil Shakery Jalil and Behnaz Bakhshi focus on social and psychological issues and discuss the detrimental effects of poverty on the life of a number of Saedi’s characters. In her “A Comparison between the Story of Ashghalduni (Dustbin) and the Adapted Movie Dayere-Ye Mina (The Cycle),” Zahra Hayati adopts a sociological critical approach and probes into the impacts of trauma in Saedi’s selected works. In “A Criminological-Victimological Analysis on ‘Dump’ (‘Ashghaldooni’): A Long Symbolic Story by Gholam Hossein Saa’edi,” Mehrdad Rayejian Asli and Ali Molabeigi deal with notions such as delinquency and felony in Saedi’s The Dump, focusing on the close relation between literature and criminology and the formation of identity in light of social interactions. In their “The Visual Capabilities of Gholam Hossein Saedi’s Grave and Cradle in Iranian Cinema,” Fataneh Ghajaghi et al. have delved into the prevalence of social ills and evils in Saedi’s works and inspected the role they play in his characters’ identity crisis.Methodology and

The present study draws upon Julia Kristeva’s theory of abjection, formulated in her seminal book Powers of Terror: An Essay on Abjection (1982). Abjection blends such notions as power dynamics, linguistics, sociology, and psychoanalysis, and by emphasizing the role of the mother’s body in the formation of the subject’s identity, it also uses feminist concepts and criticizes oppression and patriarchy. This research analyzes the relationship among the society, characters, and language with what is defined and treated as abject in Saedi’s The Dump, highlighting the conflicts between the semiotic and the symbolic in the social context.

This Kristevean reading of Saedi’s The Dump reveals that the major characters of the novel are all abjectified by the dominant power dynamics and social normativity. They are marginalized and reduced to non-citizens since they simply cannot climb the social ladder and purge themselves of their socially-imposed manifestations of abjection. Although they are driven by such innate stimuli as instincts of survival and life-force, they fail to return to the security and purity of the symbolic stage (chora or the semiotic space) and all their desperate attempts push them more deeply into depravity and abjection. They even resort to conformity and abject objects, jobs, and lifestyles, but again, what they end up with is nothing but exclusion and alienation. It can be argued that in Saedi’s The Dump, the society as a whole is a dump and the characters of the novel are its abject and foul-smelling garbage. Keywords: Abject, Semiotic Order, Symbolic Order, Kristeva, Saedi, The Dump

Introdution:

Tao Yuanming, a 5th century Chinese poet, is known as the founder of the "Garden Alley" poem. He wrote down the issues and problems of the society and of course his mental states with a simple and of course frank literature, which has a great contribution in presenting a picture of the social history of his time. The poems of this stylish poet have greatly influenced the culture and especially the literature of China after him. Among his poems, there are concepts and values ​​such as turning away from the world, turning your back on politics, enjoying nature, being content with living in poverty, and ideals such as a society without coercion and superiority. Apart from this, he left some poems with a multi-layered meaning and with hidden and confused concepts, which have led to various evaluations by literary scholars. There are different views about his worldly lifestyle; Although his poor lifestyle is not much approved by critics, his values ​​and ideals have been praised and are considered.

Background Studies:

It seems that the writing in front of you is one of the first writings that examines Tao Yuan Ming's poems in Persian and from the perspective of Iranian culture. Although Chinese literary scholars have examined the poems and life of this poet from different perspectives, and of course it has been very helpful in organizing this research, but the name, poems and thoughts of this famous Chinese poet still do not have a place among Persian texts. Zain hopes that this article will open a window forChinese scholars, especially in the field of culture and history of this country.From the point of view of Chinese researchers, the most important feature of Tao Yuanming's poems is their simplicity and at the same time they have a deep meaning - sometimes his words can appear as a philosophical point of view.

This article is written based on text and content analysis with a historical approach. Poetry can be analyzed in different ways, and in this text, according to the time conditions of the poet and his beliefs, an attempt has been made to examine the vocabulary of the poem

Tao Yuanming is considered a special poet in the history of China. Some researchers raise his status as a philosopher and belive he was the owner of certain philosophical thoughts and worldview. It seems should be more careful to find the hidden layers of knowledge and insight in his poems.There are less than fifty poems left by this eloquent poet. However, some of his compositions have conflicting meanings. For example, the literary prose of "Xiann qing Fu" in which he proposed ten completely imaginary wishes. Chinese researchers have two completely different opinions about this work. Some say it is a simple love and some believe that this prose has deep mystical meanings.There is no doubt that Tao Yuanming left politics for some reasons, and he chose a simple life style. We can see He has introduced a worldly lifestyle.It can even be said that he set an model in this field. Iranian poet Saadi also has a poem in this context, which warns that a person should be content Be content with a simple life does not bow down to others.It can also be said that when city life are boring, you can leave its comforts and choose a peaceful life in smal village.

Although there are propitious merits to poetry galore, few would suggest it as a means for the exemplification of critical theories. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of human sciences, there exists a reciprocal connection between findings in literature which will aid critiques to illustrate the veracity of their theories. Black poetry stands out as a favorable example of how the dialectics of power domination circulates within a society, not perpetually residing with the supremacy. The following paper elaborates on Foucault’s well-known power/knowledge critical theory by focusing on co-textual influences and presents a discussion exemplified in Mari Evans’ anthologized poem, “When in Rome”.Background of the Study: Regardless of Mari Evans’ authenticity, inadequate attention has been paid to her work in the form of critical analysis. Considering all its merits, her poetry deserves to be noticed all the more since as a committed poet, Evans is true to the principles of Black Art which demands of its followers to support issues concerning the Black minority. In this regard, Evans’ poetry outstands the works of her peers. Controversial instances, which have often been challenged in the crucible of critical thought, may need to be exemplified for the sake of elucidation. Hayden White’s insistence that events be narrated according to the survey of causes and effects and Foucault’s theory of power/knowledge circulation serve as the critical backbone of the present study. This paper aims to illustrate how Mari Evans’ selected poem, as a complement to Foucault’s theory and White’s approach to the study of history, tends to display that the circulation of power within a given society is not transferred hierarchically but rather promulgates dialectically, as defined by historiography, from one agent to another based on an imbalance in knowledge possession. Historically, it has always been assumed that the white supremacy has domination over the black minority, given that it has full grasp of knowledge, and this is exactly the presumption that is challenged in Foucault’s theory. “When in Rome” provides adequate ground in support of the theory and exhibits how common thought about domination of power and the elements which contribute to the existing functional contradictions within social relationships can be challenged. Furthermore, the poem provides sound context to question the historically presumption of alleged superiority for the White.

Foucault emphasizes on several points when he presented his power/knowledge theory. First, he stipulates that power and knowledge are integral parts of man’s existence and accentuates their interrelationship. Second, he defines certain characteristics for power, namely that it is not transmitted in a structure of levelized arrangement but circulates uninhibitedly among agents and last, that power cannot exist without resistance. White emphasizes the requirement of seeking causes and effects behind the occurrence of events, particularly to explain existing conflicts. The poem and the theories complement each other by presenting a clear and comprehensible illustration of critical-literary notions.

The application of Foucault’s theory to Evans’ poem, “When in Rome”, and investigating the causes and effects which initiate the circulation, demonstrate the qualities attributed to power, knowledge and their interrelated connection. As observed in the poem, a member of the working class is caught in the dialectical circulation of power by her employer who represents supremacy. Through knowledge and by exerting resistance, the dominated individual orients power in her own direction and avoids imposition. The poem is a revealing piece of literary work exemplifying the highlights of historical-literary reciprocity to perfection.

 In the power structure, the ideological anxiety of the subversive forces is such that its owners do their best to subdue the subversive forces and destroy their legitimacy in the power scene. As much as the ideology reproduces itself at every moment, the subversive forces are also mocked to make their seizure of power appear illegitimate. Subversive forces are depicted in a situation where they are unable to maintain the power and the order of affairs, and the only solution is to destroy them and restore the previous order of affairs. One of the benefits of literary works is that they are cultural narratives to show the conflict of power, whose representation reaches its peak in epic and tragic genres. The stories of King Lear and “Fereydoun and his Sons”, Hamlet and “Kay Khosrow” are good grounds for comparative analysis of the tension in power and subversion. Demonstrating them and their resolutions often prevents their occurrence in reality.

Background of the Study: 

Gender, race and social class are the subject of studies that have examined the plays from 'the other' point of view. For example, numerous studies have been conducted on Shakespeare's works for gender and race (Callaghan, 2000), the status of women (Kemp, 2010), ideology and 'the other' (Henderson, 2008; Hawkes, 1996; Drakaki, 1985), etc. Of course, they lack a comparative view. Similar studies have been done about the Shahnameh, but they also do not have a comparative view. Recently, attention has been directed towards doing comparative studies between Shakespeare's and Ferdowsi's works, especially the tragic parts. Despite the tragedy-oriented and comparative studies, the place of Marxist studies seems to be few among the articles. Among this collection of articles, a comparative research with the view of cultural materialists on works was not observed. Therefore, the present research, while benefiting from the results of the articles, adds a new chapter to them.

Cultural materialism along with the comparative method compares the ideological anxieties in the power structure. Narratives in cultural materialism are a part of the cultural history of nations and intertwined with other literary and non-literary narratives. In this approach, as much as it is possible to reconstruct and recognize the facts related to the narratives, it is also possible to change and observe the changes made. For example, the status of 'the other' in race, gender and social class shows how the culture of 'the other' and 'the same' have changed since the writing of the work. On the one hand, cultural materialism examines challenges and faults and shows that power is not unified and is always subject to threats. These threats force the power to use any means, ideological (ISA) or repressive (RSA) for its survival and legitimacy. On the other hand, it goes beyond the current level of consciousness. 

This research shows that the power uses every mechanism and deceitful trick to maintain its survival. The evidences in the selected works show how subcultures and Others existed in the power structure. While writing and protecting the myths and cultures of their time, both of Shakespeare and Ferdowsi displayed the differences, gaps and the possibility of change in the opportunities they encountered. The evidence of this comparative analysis shows that there is a significant similarity between the components of ideological anxieties in these tragic works, which connects the literature of the East with the literature of the West.

The theme of some of the contemporary Iranian and South American novels has the potential to depict the archetype the hero's journey. The role of the hero's journey archetype in the works of these regions' authors, been manifested to a great extent due to the similarity of their political and revolutionary atmosphere. The archetype in modern Iranian novels is a reflection of ancient mythology; writers such as Sadeq Hedayat, Simin Daneshvar, Bahram Sadeqi, Qazaleh Alizadeh and others, have exploited archetypes in their works, novels of Fuentes, Márquez, Lluçà and particularly Isabel Allende, are incredibly mixed with myths and archetypes. So much so that Iranian and South American writers express the revolutionary, social and individual themes and even the contemporary problems of their societies in the shadow of archetypal actions and especially the archetypal travel. Writers of these two regions try to adopt heroic people in their stories to show benevolent and good-thinking ideas. These characters, sometimes according to the three stages of the hero's journey; the separation or departure, honor and return of the hero, appear in the role of warrior, saint, lover or despotic emperor.

For this research, the analytical-comparative method is employed, which is conducted by analysis of Iranian and Southern American novels and, using library sources. Our research is based on mythological criticism and emphasis on the opinions of Jung, Campbell and Vogler in the field of the active roles of the archetypal hero and his/her journey in the formation of literary works.

Each one of the novels reviewed in this article, has been analyzed from the point of view of the hero's journey archetype. Mohammad Ali Atesh Soda and Azam Tavaloli have dedicated the article "Comparative review of the novel One Hundred Years of Solitude and the novel the Mourners of Bayal" to the comparative review of these two novels. In the article entitled " Examining the heroic journey of the character in Blind Owl by relying on the archetypes of awakening the inner hero" written by Majid Sarmadi et al., the novel Blind Owl and Prince Ihtejaab are analysed on the basis of intellectual foundations of Carol Pearson and Hugh K. Marr. In the article "Evolution of Wahhab's character in the context of love in the story of the House of Idrisi based on the model of Joseph Campbell's hero's journey" written by Roya Yadalhi Shah-rah, attention is paid to Wahhab's character by considering the model of Campbell's hero's journey. In the "Analysis of the structure of the novel (I turn off the lights) article, based on the archetype of the hero's journey" written by Afsaneh Hassanzadeh Dastjerdi, this novel is analysed according to Vogler's archetype of the hero's journey.

The archetypal concept of hero and anti-hero as two fictional characters in Iranian and South American novels may be reviewed. Yusof, Qobad and Alba as warrior heroes, Blind Owl narrator, Morgan, Santiago, Philip and Wahhab appear as beloved characters. Esteban Trueba, Trujillo and Dr. Hatem appear as heroes in the role of the despotic emperor. In general, the mythological action of the hero and the various roles of the hero, such as warrior, saint and despotic emperor, have a similar function in the novels of the two regions, and the role of anti-heroes and the hero as a lover is more obvious in South American novels.

The lack of meaning in life causes existential frustration and situational depression. The descriptive-analytical research deals with representation of existential frustration results of Logotherapy focused on Victor Frank’s point of view relying on The Midnight Library by Matt Haig, a contemporary English writer. Using scientific theories such as parallel universe, this novel narrates the transition from existential frustration to the “will to meaning” in life. Clearly, in order to create a new study of this novel on elements of Logotherapy, the current research attempts to deal with existential frustration and “Noögenic Neuroses” of the protagonist of the novel, Nora Seed who decides to die due to the situational depression, anxiety and lack of resilience against the unavoidable suffering of life.

Background of the Study:

 Most of the previous research on Logotherapy has focused on influential components in searching for meaning. The process of meaning therapy in existential frustration, situational depression and “Noögenic Neuroses” has not been investigated. No research has been done with emphasis on Logotherapy in the novel The Midnight Library by Matt Haig.

From the point of view of Logotherapy or meaning therapy, existential frustration is examined in this novel. According to Logotherapy, it is one of the achievements of literature and psychology studies performs an important role in the will to meaning, in other words, Logotherapy developed by Victor Frankel’s point of view. Logotherapy focuses on the meaning of life in the process of treating existential frustration caused by the triad of Pain, Death, Guilt. Meaning therapy and Height Psychology emphasizes the future in order. Logotherapy is based on a positive and optimistic attitude. The Methodology represents the value of experience, creative works, the meaning of suffering and the value of meaningful attitude. Logotherapy doubles Unconscious Spirituality instead of Instinctual Unconscious.

The finding of the research shows that Nora had grasped the existential meaning of life through effort, purpose and experience of living in parallel universe. Regarding to experiences, existential frustration becomes certainly the meaningful purpose in life. She realizes that love is necessary for a meaningful life. This experience taught Nora that suicide transmits suffering to others. In the infinite lives of which she had only experienced a part of them, the perception of everyone’s life is like a white paper and everyone is the creator of infinite lives and gives meaning to his/her life. Therefore, after these steps and understanding the meaning of life, Nora wanted to live in the real world. This life imposes a new opportunity to grasp the world and the unknowns of life in its meaningful whole. The meaning of life is not without suffering. Meaningful sufferings also lead to the purity of the soul. Her attitude

Thomas Pynchon have instinctively embraced cinematic techniques and images and have incorporated them into their own literary landmarks. This connection with cinema is palpable in his Mason & Dixon (1997) since it boasts of a filmic nature as well as diverse filmmaking techniques. Regarding this issue, the present article will demonstrate that this novel is a Deleuzian crystal-image, embodying the Bergsonian durée. To fulfill my quest, I will explore the liquefied nature of the novel and its brimming with water, the blurring of history and tale, as well as the folding of free indirect discourse upon its entire body, features which have made Pynchon's filmic venture crystallized.Background of the Study: In an essay included in The Multiple Worlds of Pynchon’s Mason & Dixon (2005) and entitled “ The Times of Mason & Dixon,” Elizabeth Hinds argues that Pynchon’s novel is concerned with the correction of time and that it expresses its awareness of the difference between pre-modern and scientific views of time. According to Hinds, in this novel, the same number of identical Seconds is opposed to labyrinthine time that is equivalent to Henri Bergson’s time as durée, directly shown in time-image films after the Second World War. Pynchon and Relativity: Narrative Time in Thomas Pynchon’s Later Novels (2012) by Simon De Bourcier is another work devoted to the concept of time in Mason & Dixon. De Bourcier’s study is in a sense, a time-machine because it does not address Pynchon’s novels in a chronological order. Its quest launches with his Against the Day (2006) and then travels back in time to Mason & Dixon. This involves, also, a journey in time from the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the setting of Against the Day, to the eighteenth century. This study seeks to examine the concepts of crystal-image and durée in Mason & Dixon and Deleuze’s milestones Cinema 1: The Movement-Image (1983) and Cinema 2: The Time-Image (1985) will extensively be used to provide an in-depth analysis of Pynchon’s filmic novel. Cinema 1 introduces the concepts of the movement-image regime which according to Deleuze, dominated cinematic expression before the Second World War and subordinated action to what happens next or what must be found out. According to him, the post-WWII movies became crystal-images that resist the movement-image measures and their organic unity. In this book, he explores crystal and the power of the false (rather than the power of the true) through analyzing the cinema of the Italian neorealist filmmakers such as Federico Fellini and Roberto Rossellini as well as the Japanese director Yasujirō Ozu. Using extensively these two books, the present article will explore the concepts of crystal-image and the Bergsonian durée in Mason & Dixon. In Mason & Dixon, as a liquefied crystal, water, in diverse forms, acts as a crystal and renders the entire novel become the zone of indiscernibility. Furthermore, the blurring of history and fiction has enveloped the whole text, as a giant crystal. Parallel to time-image landmarks such as Resnais’s Hiroshima, Mon Amour, in this novel, there exists no linear history of progress, because history and fiction, past and present, and true and false have already entered the state of crystal. Mason & Dixon, is, also, an ideal manifestation of free indirect discourse, a literary and a cinematic technique. This literary project is a giant flashback and is, also, brimmed with stream of consciousness, two techniques that, according to Mohammad Ghaffary, create free indirect discourse, which in turn, makes the whole novel crystallize.

The present paper delves into the political and fascist ideologies embedded in Wyndham Lewis’s Hitler (1931) through a descriptive and literary analysis informed by the fascist theories of Nathan Waddell and Alan Munton. Lewis, a key figure in early 20th-century modernism, presents a complex portrayal of Adolf Hitler in his novel) his alignment with fascist ideals and his early support for Adolf Hitler (, which has sparked significant debate among scholars regarding its ideological underpinnings. By examining the text through Waddell’s and Munton’s critical frameworks (The discourse of fascist literary criticism), this research seeks to unpack the ambivalence and contradictions in Lewis’s depiction of Hitler and fascism. Waddell’s analysis highlights Lewis’s conflicted fascination with fascism as both a response to and critique of the failures of liberal democracy, while Munton offers a nuanced understanding of Lewis’s engagement with authoritarianism, emphasizing the artistic and intellectual tensions in his work. Through this combined lens, the study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the political and literary dimensions of Hitler (1931), situating Lewis’s novel within the broader context of modernist literature and the ideological struggles of the early twentieth century.

Background of Study:

 Wyndham Lewis’s Hitler (1931) occupies a contentious position in literary and political discourse, as it engages with the rising tide of fascism in Europe during the early 20th century. As a modernist writer and artist, Wyndham Lewis was both fascinated and repelled by the political currents of his time, particularly the authoritarianism embodied by figures like Adolf Hitler. This ambivalence is reflected in his novel, which has been interpreted variously as an endorsement, critique, or complex exploration of fascist ideology. In this fashion, Nathan Waddell’s and Alan Munton’s fascist theories provide critical frameworks for analyzing Lewis’s work, each offering unique insights into the ways in which Hitler (1931) grapples with themes of power, authority, and individual freedom.

This study employs a descriptive and literary analytical approach to examine the political and fascist ideologies presented in Wyndham Lewis’s Hitler (1931), utilizing the theoretical frameworks of Nathan Waddell and Alan Munton. The research begins with a close reading of Hitler (1931), identifying key themes, motifs, and narrative strategies that reflect Lewis’s engagement with fascist ideology. Waddell’s theoretical perspective is applied to assess Lewis’s complex relationship with fascism, focusing on the tension between his attraction to authoritarian order and his critical stance on its extremes. Munton’s analysis is employed to explore the artistic and ideological contradictions within the novel, highlighting how Lewis’s modernist sensibilities intersect with his political views. The methodology involves a comparative analysis of the novel’s content with Waddell’s and Munton’s interpretations, aiming to uncover how Lewis’s portrayal of Hitler and fascism contributes to broader discussions on modernism and political ideology based on the discourse of fascist literary criticism.

The examination of Wyndham Lewis’s Hitler (1931) through the lenses of Nathan Waddell's and Alan Munton's fascist theories has revealed a nuanced interplay between political ideology and literary expression in Lewis's work. Waddell's framework highlights Lewis's conflicted engagement with fascism, portraying his ambivalence towards authoritarianism as a response to the perceived failures of liberal democracy and his search for a new social order. Munton’s analysis further elucidates the internal contradictions within Lewis’s portrayal of Hitler, showcasing how the novel has reflected modernist concerns about power, authority, and the role of the artist in society. Together, these theoretical perspectives underscore that Hitler (1931) is not merely a political critique but a complex literary artifact that grapples with the broader discourse on modernism and fascism/literature and politics.

In Bend Sinister (1947), the Ekwilist party has become the ruling political party due to a recent upheaval and Paduk has become its autocratic leader. Adam Krug, a distinguished professor of philosophy, becomes the focal point of the regime’s scrutiny. Initially, he is asked to sign a “historical document”, which he refuses, leading to the imprisonment of friends and acquaintances. When his son is caught and confined to an undisclosed location, Krug accepts to sign any prepared document. Yet, David’s accidental demise during a pseudo-scientific experiment relinquishes Krug’s agency. This study draws on postclassical narratology, especially rhetorical narratology, to provide a rhetorical reading of Bend Sinister.

Background of the study:

The curious connection between dream and reality in Bend Sinister has been of main concern of both aesthetic- and rhetoric-centered critics. For Michael Begnal, from the former group, this novel is the epitome of fatherly love, and therefore, what lurks behind this combination of dream and reality is an artistic dream that allows for transcending pain and coming to terms with the past (25). Lee, on the other side of the continuum, maintains that this narrative is a “political dream” that depicts a nightmare for the protagonist who strives to escape from it, and his failure is a symbolic display of the utmost political dictatorship ruining free-spirited individuals’ lives (202). The second studied aspect of the narrative pinpoints the recurring theme within Nabokov’s oeuvre—the question of individualism. Lee observes that Ekwilism is the enemy of the mind and represses any individualistic sense of curiosity (196). This depiction of total suppression of individualism has led diverse critics to pinpoint the doctrines of Communism in the narrative (Rutledge 134), and even encouraged some, like Kopper to consider Bend Sinister a head-to-toe political novel (57).

According to rhetorical narratology, the social and historical context in which a text is produced and received shape critical interpretation (Phelan 9). This paper argues that Bend Sinister showcases the triumph of totalitarianism and philistinism in destroying any hope for overcoming dictatorship and maintaining individuality. Hence, Krug’s inability to stand against the system is symptomatic of the impossibility of maintaining individuality. The author-narrator pictures a dark, pessimistic situation of the modern world yet, he leaves room for hope as he “blesses” his protagonist through the apparent madness that affirms the philosopher’s intuitions about the real world being above the world wherein he is entrapped.

This paper concludes that the intrusive narrator, who provides enough space for the protagonist to express his ideas, is directly connected to the author himself. The narrator’s direct deliverance of Nabokov’s voice becomes prominent when the author enters the diegetic world of Krug and blesses him with madness. Neither unreliable nor dictatorial, the author-narrator blurs the border between dream and reality to depict the loss of freedom of mind in the age of banality of meaning as a result of the union of totalitarianism and philistinism. As Krug goes mad, he understands his true nature as belonging to a higher, more real world of his author and safely goes back to his bosom in that world, which testifies to Nabokov’s gnostic beliefs.

Although after World War I the concepts of "war literature" and "anti-war literature" have a special place in German literature and, still in some sources, any literary work with the subject of war, is considered as war literature, whether the author's view of the phenomenon of war is positive or negative. Although the concept of "war literature" for all war-related works does not impair the nature of these works: the different attitudes of war literature towards the phenomenon of war and the different goals pursued in these works reflect the fact that the concept of "war literature" should not be applied for all war-related works. The following article aims to extract the characteristics of these concepts by examination and confrontation of two works In Stahlgewittern by Ernst Jünger as a symbol of war literature and Im Westen nichts Neues by Erich Maria Remarque as an anti-war literature symbol. The article tries to extract the characteristics of these concepts from these works and shows that different literary works in the field of war should only be evaluated in close connection with the attitude of its authors.

Background of study:

Among the works done in this case, it should be mentioned an article entitled "The inside of the novel is not news in the West" which was presented by Abdullah Hassanzadeh Mir Ali, Farzaneh Darwish and Sara Wazirzadeh in the second international conference on social, cultural and religious studies in 2017. Citing this work, the less visible layers of war have been taken into consideration. Another noteworthy article is "Comparison of anti-war literature in the works of Erich Maria Remak and Wolfgang Borschert" written by Parviz Azari Motamedi and Nasrin Zahirifard, which was published in 2012 in the journal of literary criticism studies, in which Remarque and Borschert's views on war are examined. 

The method used to achieve the goals of this research is the descriptive method. With this method, the authors do not seek to examine the concepts of "war literature" and "anti-war literature" on the basis of specific theoretical foundations, but the goal is to understand Ernst Junger's attitude and thinking. The method aimed to study how Erich Maria Remarque has understood the phenomenon of war from two works based upon the comparative analysis of these works. We will analyze the results as the basis for the necessity of separating "war literature" and " "Anti-war literature" in relation to literary works related to war.

The following essay aims to compare the war diary in Storm of Steel by Ernst Junger and the anti-war novel by Erich Maria Remarque, not only to infer the characteristics of "war literature" and "anti-war literature" from these works, but also for the sake of showing the concept of "war literature" for every literary work. For this purpose the works related to the field of war should be evaluated and classified based on the thinking and attitude of their authors. If this aspect prevails, the works in which the phenomenon of war plays a positive role in the political, social, intellectual and spiritual development of the author should be referred to as war literature (or at least war literature in a special sense) and the works that describe the pains and sufferings of the people involved in the war, will be called anti-war literature. Even though the choice of the concept of "war literature" for all works related to war does not harm the nature of these works, however, the establishment of such concepts as anti-war literature in German literature and sacred defense literature in Persian literature requires a more serious attitude towards the evaluation of these works.

The importance of memory enhancement in language learning is often overlooked in educational resources, despite its crucial role in the foreign language acquisition process. Different literary genres offer unique benefits in improving retention and cognitive reserve, with each genre stimulating different parts of the brain. This research focuses on the potential of dramatic literature (French) as a valuable educational tool to aid in the memorization of vocabulary and phrases during French language learning. By exploring the relationship between memory and literature, this study aims to highlight the benefits of incorporating dramatic literature into language education to enhance learning outcomes.

Background of the Study:

In a series of research articles, various approaches to teaching foreign languages, specifically French, have been explored. Shobeiry (2020) delves into the use of literature in language instruction, emphasizing task-based teaching methods to enhance students' understanding of cultural and social aspects through literary texts. Mohammadi and colleagues (2017) compare the neurocognitive linguistic approach with traditional methods in teaching French in Iran, highlighting the effectiveness of the former in improving oral expression skills. Ghashmardi (2017) discusses the importance of cognitive neuroscience in language teaching, suggesting that it can serve as a theoretical basis for cognitive learning and contribute to the development of effective teaching methods. Collectively, these studies shed light on innovative approaches to language instruction that aim to enhance students' language skills and cultural understanding.

The research aimed to determine the effectiveness of using drama versus narrative in improving memorization and cognitive reserve in students during conversation. The study involved 54 third-semester French language students with an A1 language level, divided into a control group (narrative) and an experimental group (drama). The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) was used to measure cognitive reserve and word recall, focusing on sentences and phrases. The research method was descriptive-analytical, with the goal of proving the superiority of dramatic literature in enhancing learning outcomes compared to narrative literature.

The study examined the assumptions of the variance analysis in Table 6, which revealed that the drama group had a higher average in the post-test compared to the narrative group. The results of the covariance analysis in Table 7 further supported this finding, showing a significant difference between the two groups in the post-test after accounting for the pre-test. The main goal of the research was thus achieved, demonstrating the effectiveness of the drama group in comparison to the narrative group.