پژوهشنامه تاریخ تمدن اسلامی
سال پنجاه و هفتم شماره 1 (پیاپی 118، بهار و تابستان 1403)

Analyzing themes of mourning in illustrations, a significant artistic and contemplative element, can lead to a deeper understanding of fundamental concepts related to grief. It is also essential for understanding Iranian illustration within its textual context, which provides its identity. Funeral customs and traditions in any given period reflect the beliefs and values of a nation. This article aims to identify under-explored illustrations depicting mourning within Shahnameh manuscripts and to discern variations in funeral rites based on the Shahnameh text, written historical sources, and the illustrations themselves, using a qualitative approach. This research seeks to answer the following questions: 1. What are the elements and characteristics of mourning illustrations in handwritten copies of Ferdowsi's Shahnameh? 2. How are the most important visual features of mourning depicted in the selected illustrations? The research findings indicate that mourning illustrations in the Shahnameh are portrayed based on the funeral customs and traditions described in the text and poems of the Shahnameh. The most common visual manifestations of mourning in these illustrations include self-flagellation, throwing dust on one's head, and tearing one's clothes. However, some aspects of mourning present in the Shahnameh text, such as the stages of shrouding and burial, various forms of lamentation, and the duration of mourning, are not depicted in the illustrations. The research employs a descriptive-analytical method, with data gathered from library sources. From twelve identified illustrations, six depicting mourning and funeral rites from the Ilkhanid (Mongol), Timurid, and Safavid (Tabriz II and Isfahan) schools—representing an evolution of these themes and exhibiting the most prominent features—were selected for closer analysis.

Geographical features, security needs, and the social structure of the inhabitants of ancient Iran necessitated the construction of enclosed settlements equipped with defense facilities. Ali Abad Castle is one of the large and prominent settlements of the Sirjan plain, whose ruins are located near Shah Abad village. Since no research has been conducted on the castle, the spatial structure, period of prosperity, and social organization of its inhabitants, its picture remains shrouded in ambiguity. This research aims to answer these questions while studying the spatial structure, utilization, and chronology of this settlement: What were the architectural features used in this building, and what was its form and use? Based on the available cultural evidence, to which period does this site belong? To achieve this goal, the study seeks to address the research questions and clarify the construction and prosperity timeline by analyzing the architectural features and cultural findings discovered in the area. This research was conducted using a descriptive-analytical method and field data. The findings indicate that this castle, located in the agricultural lands of the Sirjan Plain, characterized by its spatial arrangement and architectural features, is an example of the manor castles in southeastern Iran. It was constructed during the Safavid period and remained in use until the Qajar periods.

During the reign of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar, court portrait painting influenced various art forms, including enamelwork. This study examines enamel art of that period, focusing on how it reflects the conventions of court portraiture to convey royal grandeur. Enamelwork of this era can be broadly categorized as decorative or functional. Using extant examples, this research investigates the degree to which enamel artists adhered to these established portrait traditions. The surviving pieces demonstrate a clear fidelity to these conventions, contributing to the objects' magnificence, a quality intentionally sought by patrons. Stylistic variations are also considered. This study aims to investigate the influence of Fath-Ali Shah's court portraiture on both decorative and functional enamel objects, a topic that has not yet been thoroughly explored. The central research question is: How is the influence of Qajar-era court portrait painting evident in enamel objects of the time? This fundamental research employs a descriptive-analytical methodology, relying on library resources and qualitative data analysis. It explores a relatively understudied aspect of enamelwork within the context of portraiture from this period.The findings reveal that the visual characteristics of court portraiture are consistently present in both decorative and functional enamel pieces, often in miniature form, mirroring other contemporary accessories. This consistency underscores the pervasive influence of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar's court portrait painting on the art of the era..

During the Ottoman era, local governments appointed by the Ottomans intensified their policies and actions against Shī‘ī communities within al-Shām (Greater Syria). The Ma‘nid dynasty was one such local government that, with Ottoman backing, implemented extensive anti-Shī‘a policies and strategies. Fakhral-Dīn II became particularly notorious for his continuous raids on Shī‘ī areas in Jabal ‘Āmil, Jabal Lubnān, Ba‘labakk, and the Biqā‘ Valley. This article examines the causes and consequences of Fakhr al-Dīn II's attacks on these Shī‘ī areas, along with the role of the Ottomans. It concludes that Fakhr al-Dīn II, ultimately seeking autonomy for Lebanon, harbored ambitions to overthrow Ottoman rule. To achieve this goal, he adopted a two-pronged approach towards the Shī‘a. On the one hand, he appeased the Ottomans by dividing Shī‘ī clans, relocating Maronites to Shī‘a settlements, eliminating Shī‘ī leaders, establishing military outposts, and settling Sunnī clans in these areas to monitor Shī‘ī activity. On the other hand, he attempted to liberate Lebanon from Ottoman control by seizing the emirates of Safad, Beirut, Sidon, and Keserwan, forming alliances with European powers, and consolidating his own power. Despite widespread repression of the Shī‘a with the complicity of the Pashas of Sham, Fakhr al-Dīn II's downfall ultimately stemmed from the exposure of his secret commercial-military agreement with Italy and Tuscany against the Ottomans. This not only led to the failure of his goals but also presented an opportunity for the Shī‘ī clans to regain their lost influence

This article addresses the question of how the Iranian Army, despite facing numerous challenges following the Islamic Revolution, developed strategies to counter the threat of an Iraqi invasion. This question is particularly relevant given that much existing research focuses on the element of surprise in the subsequent Iran-Iraq War (often referred to as the "Sacred Defense"), implying a lack of preparedness on the part of the Iranian Army in the two years preceding the conflict. This prevailing assumption has influenced many studies. Based on newly discovered documents from the Iranian Army archives, this research concludes that the Army of the Islamic Republic of Iran, while closely monitoring Iraqi military movements, pursued a dual strategy. On the one hand, it urged Iranian authorities to pursue negotiations with Iraq. On the other hand, it simultaneously strengthened its defensive capabilities in preparation for potential Iraqi attacks. This second strategy—strengthening defensive capabilities—became the Army's primary plan of action following the Paveh conflict in August 1979 and was actively pursued until September 1980.

This research examines the role of charities custodianship and agency organization within the Shia Imamiyyah social movement during the early centuries of the Hijri era. Focusing on the network criterion in social movement definitions by Ronald Roth and Dieter Rucht, the study analyzes historical data to explore how these organizational structures functioned within the movement. The research employs a historical sociology approach to investigate the question: How did the systematized collection of funds contribute to the development of the Shia Imamiyyah's social network within the Islamic society of that era? By examining Islamic sources, the research concludes that the organized collection of funds played a significant role in establishing a unified and cohesive network for the Shia Imamiyyah social movement.

The knowledge of geography became crucial from the early Islamic centuries due to the Arab conquests and the expansion of political borders. Consequently, Muslim thinkers produced independent works on the geography of the Islamic world, particularly during the ninth and tenth centuries. This study, employing an analytical-comparative approach and relying on library sources, examines the commonalities and differences in the economic geography of the Islamic world as presented in two geographical texts: al-Iṣṭakhrī's Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik and Ashkāl al-‘Ālam. The research indicates that the geographical and historical conditions of different regions within the Islamic world during the lifetimes of the two authors significantly influenced the nuances of their thought and their respective focus on the economic geography of the Islamic world. The author of Ashkāl al-‘Ālam paid particular attention to the economic geography of regions such as Sistān and Transoxiana, while al-Iṣṭakhrī focused more on the economic geography of the northern and western regions of the Islamic world, providing numerous reports.

Distributive justice has long been a central concern of governments, and numerous perspectives have been offered on this topic. John Rawls, a prominent 20th-century American political philosopher, is a key theorist in this field. This article compares the political economies of the eras of the third and fourth Caliphs, Uthman and Ali ibn Abi Talib, analyzing these periods through a theoretical framework derived from Rawls's theory of distributive justice. Concepts such as recognizing equal rights for all, prioritizing the collective interest over the interests of the wealthy, and advocating for just government intervention through distributive mechanisms are central to Rawls's argument in A Theory of Justice. During Uthman's caliphate, a growing divergence from the values of the prophetic era emerged, marked by increasing social stratification, the concentration of wealth within a specific class, the rise of an aristocracy, and the emergence of monopolies. Ali ibn Abi Talib, in contrast, sought to regulate and improve the distribution of wealth and income, implementing economic reforms that prioritized human dignity over kinship ties and public welfare over individual and class interests. This research emphasizes the significant differences between the political economies of these two periods, highlighting dimensions of Ali ibn Abi Talib's approach to distributive justice that extend beyond Rawls's theoretical framework. These findings offer a valuable model for understanding contemporary economic challenges.

British rule over the Indian subcontinent, in addition to its political consequences, also left a deep impact on the social and scientific life of Muslims. Along with the British, Western cultural and civilizational influences also entered India. Among the Englishmen's contributions were new fields of knowledge that were different and sometimes conflicting with Muslim sciences and knowledge in terms of subject, method, and purpose. These sciences were widely introduced into India by statesmen, scientists, orientalists, and other European groups and influenced the Muslim educational tradition. From the beginning of the introduction of these sciences, differences and divisions arose among Muslim scholars about learning European languages and engaging with these new sciences. Many Muslim scholars, who were mainly Hadith scholars, opposed the learning of these languages and sciences and believed that these sciences were in conflict with religious teachings and would lead to the dominance of non-Muslims over Muslims. In the meantime, Shiites showed interest in these sciences for intellectual, ideological, and political reasons, and many of them began to learn European languages and acquire new knowledge. This article examines how Shiites encountered Western sciences, introduces some outstanding modern scientists, and studies the factors contributing to Shiite acceptance of Western languages and sciences.

Understanding the thought of Iran's anti-constitutional scholars hinges on their "semantic system," which underpins their biases regarding key concepts of the period. This research examines this system in relation to the concept of law, a central theme of the era. Employing conceptual history, the study investigates the ideas that motivated these scholars' opposition to the constitution in both theory and practice. Their approach to the "new world" is a crucial component of this semantic system, offering insights into their understanding of other fundamental concepts. The relationship between the "old" and the "new" is fundamental to this system. Consequently, this research identifies several key propositions within the anti-constitutional scholars' semantic system that reveal their stance on law. These include: the central proposition of rejecting the intellectual achievements of Iran's "Political Modernization Experience," and the supporting propositions of: the completeness and sufficiency of Sharia law; Sharia as the sole legitimate law; the comparison of new lawmaking to the death of the Prophet; the immutability of law; and the characterization of "new" law as an abrogation of Sharia.

This study examines the construction of Sufi monastery (khānaqāh) associated with the Cheshtiyyeh, Kazerouniyyeh, Sohravardiyyeh, and Kobraviyyeh orders in Iran and the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to the 15th centuries. khānaqāhs were central to Sufi life, serving as residences, gathering places, and centers of spiritual practice. This research investigates the patronage behind their construction, analyzing the roles of Sufis themselves, sultans, courtiers, and merchants. Employing a descriptive-analytical approach based on library research, the study reveals that monastery construction across these orders lacked a unified policy or standardized practice. Royal and courtly patronage was driven by diverse motives, ranging from seeking the support of these influential orders to attempting to control their social impact. Merchants' involvement reflected similar pragmatism, mirroring the evolving nature and social standing of Sufism in Iran and the Indian subcontinent during this period.

The Qara Khitai's rule in Kerman, initiated by Baraq Hajib in 619 AH, constituted a pivotal event in the region's historical timeline. Intending to journey to India, Baraq Hajib's encounter and triumph over Kerman's ruler led to the establishment of a novel dynasty: the Qara Khitai of Kerman. This governance model persisted beyond Baraq's lineage until 704 AH. Despite the availability of details on the genesis of this regime and its political history, there is a noticeable scarcity of research addressing the administrative and bureaucratic facets, particularly those pertaining to the ministerial institution. This paper adopts a historical and analytical approach to investigate the role and performance of ministers within the Qara Khitai bureaucracy. By illuminating the relatively obscure individuals who held ministerial positions, this study aims to elucidate their influence and significance within the political and power structure of the Qara Khitai government. Findings reveal that the Qara Khitai of Kerman concurrently employed multiple ministers, a noteworthy practice that predates the Mongol Ilkhanate period in Iran. Furthermore, while ministers wielded substantial authority, frequent power struggles with Qara Khitai rulers and apprehensions regarding their extensive control often culminated in property seizures and destabilized their positions.