نشریه پژوهش های مابعدالطبیعی
سال پنجم شماره 2 (پاییز و زمستان 1403)

For several centuries, Islamic philosophy has been in a state of "isolation," meaning it has lost its relevance to contemporary issues. It neither addresses pressing problems nor, at the very least, actively engages with modern challenges. This paper explores the nature, potential, and realization of Islamic philosophy, its key achievements, and its historical development across early, late, and contemporary periods. It identifies three types of Islamic philosophy: Islamic Philosophy as a Concept, the theoretical foundation and ideas behind Islamic philosophy. Islamic Philosophy as an Actualized Phenomenon, represented by schools such as Peripatetic, Illuminationist, Sadrian, and Neo-Sadrian philosophy. Future Islamic Philosophy, an ideal form that could emerge, contingent on certain conditions and prerequisites, including its capacity to engage with contemporary issues, especially socio-cultural and practical concerns. The survival of Islamic philosophy, and its avoidance of becoming merely a historical relic, against the notion of the "end of Islamic philosophy", depends on its ability to adapt and address modern-day challenges. This paper proposes key strategies to realize the future or ideal Islamic philosophy.

Contemporary Islamic philosophy faces significant challenges across a variety of dimensions and contexts. Some of these challenges include: (1) a lack of diversity in methods, topics, issues, approaches, and theories; (2) insufficient engagement with the philosophical questions of contemporary individuals; (3) a lack of practical applicability; (4) a tendency towards abstraction without concreteness; (5) reliance on previous philosophical schools; (6) inadequate interaction with other domains of human knowledge; (7) insufficient capacity for the development of applied philosophies; (8) dependence on theological doctrines and religious ideologies; (9) a focus on theoretical innovation over exegesis; (10) limited engagement with other philosophical traditions and the adoption of their insights; and (12) a lack of self-criticism and an aversion to dogmatism. This study shows that the crisis of contemporary Islamic philosophy arises from its inability to address these foundational challenges. Specifically, it lacks sufficient breadth in topics and issues, fails to engage adequately with the philosophical inquiries of contemporary Muslims, and does not represent an objective or practical philosophy, remaining heavily reliant on past philosophical traditions. Additionally, it still suffers from an overemphasis on interpretation and commentary. There exists an illogical blending and conflation between contemporary Islamic philosophy and Islamic theology, and it lacks meaningful and essential engagement with other aspects of Muslim life and human knowledge. Furthermore, contemporary Islamic philosophy lacks a strong critical approach and does not engage in constructive dialogue with other philosophical traditions. This study seeks to propose solutions to help contemporary Islamic philosophy address these challenges, such as by focusing on issues raised in contemporary Western philosophy, embracing applied philosophies, striving for independence from Islamic theology, and adopting a more concrete, practical, and critical approach.

Allamah Tabatabaei considers the teachings of the Prophets to be inherently rational, deriving their credibility from arguments rather than miracles. According to this view, reason can examine and validate all prophetic teachings, implying that religions lack transcendental or supra-rational teachings. However, Tabatabaei also acknowledges the limitations of reason in certain areas, such as understanding the details of the resurrection and addressing the need for laws to manage social life and achieve happiness. This suggests that some religious teachings may extend beyond the capacity of reason. How can this apparent contradiction be resolved? What are the implications of Tabatabaei’s perspective for understanding and implementing religion in society?
This article explores potential solutions to this issue using a reference-based analytical approach. One possible resolution lies in interpreting Tabatabaei’s view as follows: while the core teachings of religion are rational because they address real phenomena, these truths may not be immediately accessible to ordinary individuals. Prophets, through divine revelation, uncover and articulate these truths, enabling others to comprehend them afterward. If this interpretation is accepted, several important conclusions arise. Chiefly, understanding religion requires attention to intellectual and rational evidence. Moreover, implementing religious teachings—whether in promoting ontological principles or in jurisprudential and moral domains—must integrate reason as a guiding criterion. However, evaluating the validity of Tabatabaei’s maximal rationalism is beyond the scope of this article.

One of the primary crises facing Muslims today is the question of personal identity. While many contemporary Islamic thinkers have addressed this issue, their focus has often been on the collective dimensions of identity. Meanwhile, some have sought to analyze the crisis on a deeper, individual level. This topic, historically explored by philosophers, is now revisited within the framework of analytical philosophy, where emerging approaches provide critical distinctions and insights. Notably, thinkers like Dariush Shayegan have examined the crisis of identity by linking it to the emotional structure of Muslims. Building on Shayegan’s perspective, this research aims to analyze the identity crisis within the Muslim world by integrating contemporary theories of emotion. Recognizing the profound connection between religion and emotion, the study begins by exploring the nature of emotions in Islamic philosophy, with a particular emphasis on Avicenna’s contributions. Avicenna’s theory of emotion and its role within his broader philosophical system serve as a key foundation for this analysis. By revisiting his approach and adapting it to address the challenges of the modern world, this study proposes an alternative path for revitalizing the Islamic intellectual tradition and confronting identity-related crises in the Muslim world.

This article examines Mulla Sadra’s insights on the health of the soul and its ailments, reconstructing a cohesive theory from his scattered discussions. It explores key aspects of his approach, including (1) the concepts of health and disease, (2) the criteria for spiritual well-being, (3) the causes of spiritual maladies, (4) the different levels of health, and (5) Sadra’s therapeutic solutions for treating spiritual ailments. To provide a broader context, this study also compares Sadra’s views with those of earlier ethical philosophers such as Zakariya Razi, Ibn Miskawayh, Nasir al-Din Tusi, and Dawani, who each addressed the concept of the soul’s health in their works. While many of Sadra’s ideas build upon these predecessors, his theory is distinguished by its unique philosophical foundation, which integrates concepts such as the interrelation of soul and body, the corporeal creation of the soul, the substantial motion of human existence, and the principle that "the soul, in its unity, encompasses all powers and forces." These elements shape his distinctive understanding of spiritual health. Sadra’s therapeutic approach includes precise diagnosis, treatment through opposites to restore balance, cognitive therapies aimed at belief transformation, the role of reward and punishment, and the practice of virtue. By reconstructing his insights, this study demonstrates how his philosophy offers a comprehensive framework for understanding and maintaining the well-being of the soul.

Humean metaphysics represents a philosophical stance encompassing anti-essentialist and anti-realist perspectives that have shaped thought from the time of Newton to the present. Within this framework, entities lack intrinsic essences and essential properties, rendering them passive and devoid of inherent causality or necessity. Consequently, phenomena do not unfold due to causal powers, capacities, or inclinations but instead follow patterns determined by local and temporal modifications. Furthermore, natural laws, within this perspective, are mere regularities rather than causal laws, making it impossible to assert their truth. To establish a belief in necessity and causality, a theoretical framework beyond humean metaphysics is required. Both classical essentialism and its modern counterpart provide such a foundation. In these views, causality and agency emerge from the intrinsic essences of entities. According to new essentialism, objects possess causal powers, capacities, and inclinations, forming their essential properties. These properties serve as the basis for the necessity and causality inherent in natural processes and act as the truthmakers of natural laws. Consequently, laws of nature, under this framework, are not merely contingent but are instead causal and necessary truths.

Over the past decade, the dialogue between science and religion has evolved significantly, particularly with the emergence of new technologies that complicate their interactions. Traditional discussions on science and religion have often centered on human biological and cognitive limitations, such as perception and memory. However, the transhumanist movement seeks to overcome these limitations, aspiring to elevate humans beyond their current state into a post-human stage. Transhumanism is a multidisciplinary movement that integrates scientific, technological, philosophical, and cultural efforts to surpass biological constraints, such as disease, aging, and mortality, while enhancing physical, emotional, and intellectual capacities. Recent advancements in bioengineering, biotechnology, nanotechnology, and biomedicine have improved the lives of individuals with debilitating conditions, but they also serve as the foundation for technologies that could fundamentally alter human nature. This raises profound ethical questions regarding the potential misuse of such technologies. This research explores how Islamic doctrines address three key issues in the context of transhumanism: the nature of creation, the existential dimensions of humanity, and the quality of divine creation. While the Islamic concept of continuous creation and corrective interventions aimed at improving human conditions align with some aspects of transhumanism, fundamental differences emerge regarding these three core issues.

Parvin Etesami, one of Iran's most celebrated poets, deeply explored the essence of existence, searching for the meaning of life through themes such as love, knowledge, justice, and self-perfection. This study, employing a descriptive-analytical approach and utilizing library sources, delves into Etesami's nuanced perspectives on life’s meaning. On one hand, she sees meaning as inherent, woven into human nature and the universal order. On the other, she highlights the significance of free will and personal choice in shaping one’s own life path. By bridging these seemingly opposing viewpoints, Etesami presents a holistic and humanistic interpretation of life’s meaning—one that embraces both spiritual and divine dimensions while recognizing the individual’s role in shaping their own destiny. This study's uniqueness lies in its careful examination of how Etesami reconciles these perspectives in her poetry. Ultimately, her work suggests that life’s meaning is found in striving for self-improvement and transcendence while also cherishing the beauty of everyday existence

The intersection of spirituality and philosophy is a thought-provoking subject, and this article aims to explore the concept of "philosophical spirituality" in Mulla Sadra's philosophical framework. The central question guiding this inquiry is: What is the meaning of "philosophical spirituality" as the relationship between philosophy and spirituality in Mulla Sadra's thought? The article posits that this relationship can be understood through the concept of "existential excellence." Spirituality is often associated with the pursuit of self-improvement and the refinement of one’s mental and existential state. Accordingly, Mulla Sadra’s philosophy presents three fundamental perspectives on spirituality that contribute to the understanding of philosophical spirituality: first, self-knowledge, which enables individuals to cultivate their self-awareness and direct their existential development; second, theoretical wisdom in spirituality, which involves striving for a deeper comprehension of existence and approaching absolute truth; and third, practical wisdom in spirituality, which is realized through voluntary actions that align with existential transformation.

The nature of the soul and its unknown dimensions have long been central concerns for Muslim philosophers. One of the key debates in Islamic philosophy is the abstraction of the soul—its existence as an independent, immaterial entity that persists beyond the dissolution of the physical body. This concept is closely linked to discussions on resurrection and the afterlife. This study aims to analyze and compare the perspectives of two prominent Muslim philosophers, Afzal al-Dīn Marāghī Kāshānī and Mullā Ṣadrā, on the abstraction and immortality of the soul. Using a descriptive and qualitative approach, the article examines the reasoning these scholars provide in support of the soul’s abstraction. Findings indicate that Mullā Ṣadrā, through his theory of substantial motion (al-harakat al-jawhariyyah), argues that the soul originates with the body but ultimately transcends it. In contrast, Baba Afzal asserts that death is neither annihilation nor nonexistence but rather a detachment of the connections between body and soul. Both philosophers concur that once the soul reaches perfection, it no longer requires the body and continues its journey independently in the afterlife. This study seeks to further elucidate and analyze the philosophical foundations of soul abstraction and its immortality as articulated by Baba Afzal Kāshānī and Mullā Ṣadrā.

Human action and its process of realization are fundamental issues for the human and social sciences. This research employs an analytical-deductive method, and by analyzing Sadrian philosophy, it deductively presents the answer to the research question. This article aims to utilize Sadrian philosophy to identify the internal and external factors involved in the realization of human action, to extract the process of action realization based on the relationships between these factors, and to depict its conceptual model. Research findings indicate that internal factors involved in action include human faculties of the soul, innation, character of soul, knowledge and accumulated experiences, infution, and creditable. External factors involved in the action are also related to the actor's society and ecosystem, and influence the action in three ways: the impact of the prevailing social spirit on the formation of the individual's character, facilitation, and the direction of the action under social pressure and the cognitive information of the community. Among these factors, some of them become the basis for the realization of the action, in the absence of which the action does not appear in the action. These factors include; Cognitive information of the person, character, accumulated knowledge and experiences and society. Finally, the conceptual model of the process of action is drawn Keywords: action, character, society, belief, conceptual model.

After Allāh, the term Rabb is the most frequently used name for God in the Qurʾān, predominantly appearing in the possessive form, with Rabb al-ʿālamīn being the most common. This expression carries significant theological weight, as it is often highlighted as a key attribute of God. Notably, in the opening verses of Sūrah al-Fātiḥa (Q1), it is the sole attribute mentioned between the divine names Allāh and al-Raḥmān. Scholars have long debated the etymology and meaning of al-ʿālamīn, as the derivation of ʿālam does not conform to common Arabic linguistic patterns. Its proposed connection to the root ʿ-l-m (meaning "to know") remains contentious, raising the possibility that it was borrowed from other languages. This study employs historical and descriptive methods to explore the origins and implications of Rabb al-ʿālamīn. A review of Jewish religious texts and liturgies reveals striking parallels between this Qurʾānic phrase and similar expressions in Hebrew and Aramaic, such as ribbon ha-ʿolāmīm, melek ʿolām, and mare ʿalmā, all used to describe God. Epigraphic evidence from pre-Islamic Arabia further suggests that monotheistic beliefs had taken root in the region centuries before Islam, initially through Judaism and later Christianity. Inscriptions from Ḥimyar and northern Ḥijāz reflect the conceptual alignment of pre-Islamic Arabian religious thought with the Qurʾānic depiction of Rabb al-ʿālamīn.

Aristotle defined the public good as the pursuit of actions in the best possible way, which necessitates prioritizing human institutions, science, technology, and rational decision-making within political structures. This framework aims to create conditions where justice is optimally realized in society. Blockchain, often seen as a testament to the dominance of modern sciences over politics, holds the potential to advance the public good in both social and political spheres. However, this potential is accompanied by significant risks, encapsulating what can be termed the "blockchain dilemma." Blockchain presents two distinct possibilities in relation to the state. On one hand, it has the capacity to weaken state sovereignty by transcending national boundaries, reducing governmental oversight, and—through the creation of cryptocurrencies—undermining the state's control over its most powerful economic tool: money. On the other hand, blockchain technology offers a pathway to achieving the public good more effectively, bringing the concept of an ideal state closer to reality. By leveraging modern technologies, governments could enhance core functions such as accountability and service delivery, ultimately improving bureaucratic and democratic standards.

Possibility of knowledge and its essential nature, often in response to skeptics who denied its attainability. The central issue in these discussions has been identifying the key components of knowledge. The traditional view, rooted in Plato's thought, defines knowledge as "justified true belief." While this perspective dominated Western epistemology from ancient Greece until the 20th century, some scholars have argued that knowledge alone is insufficient to capture the full range of human cognitive capabilities. Instead, they have emphasized the concept of "understanding."
This study aims to differentiate understanding from knowledge, presenting them as distinct cognitive capacities that address different aspects of human curiosity and intellectual engagement. Using a descriptive-analytical method with a critical approach, the research demonstrates that understanding is neither equivalent to knowledge nor a subset of it. The key argument is that, ontologically, understanding is non-transferable, whereas knowledge is transferable.

This article explores Paul Ricoeur’s approach to the concept of evil, analyzing its symbolic meaning within various myths through the lens of philosophical and theological interpretation. The study seeks to answer fundamental questions: Where does evil originate? How can the symbolic interpretation of myths contribute to human moral growth? Is it possible to distill the essence of primitive symbols and transfer their meaning into philosophical insight, thereby bridging the semantic gap in a modern world dominated by scientism? Ricoeur argues that evil resists direct and simple linguistic categorization. Instead, he engages with multiple intellectual traditions—mythological thought, rationalism, Gnosticism, theodicy, and fragmented theology—crafting a layered, evolving analysis of evil.

This paper investigates the theory of Reism through the perspectives of Brentano and Kotarbiński, examining its contribution to clarifying philosophical concepts and resolving linguistic ambiguities. Reism, by denying the existence of abstract entities and emphasizing concrete objects, seeks to separate genuine philosophical issues from pseudo-problems that arise due to imprecise language. Brentano’s approach, centered on his theory of intentionality, asserts that every mental act is directed toward a concrete object. He argued that dismissing abstract constructs—such as universals, properties, and relations—can streamline language and logic, thereby alleviating philosophical skepticism and confusion. Extending this line of thought, Kotarbiński further developed Reism by proposing that all philosophical concepts be reduced solely to concrete objects. He argued that language should function as a precise instrument, stripped of abstract elements like qualities, relations, and states of affairs, to ensure clarity in philosophical discourse. Employing Lesniewski’s logical system, he shows how Reism addresses significant challenges in analytic philosophy, including issues related to non-existent proper names and difficulties inherent in Frege’s theory of meaning. Although critics note that rejecting abstract entities may limit its applicability in domains such as mathematics and set theory, the theory’s emphasis on simplicity and linguistic clarity continues to offer valuable insights into both linguistic and metaphysical studies.