فصلنامه تازه های علوم شناختی
سال بیست و ششم شماره 3 (پیاپی 104، پاییز 1403)

Academic adaptation plays an essential role in academic success and general experiences of students' lack of culture (1). Academic adjustment includes satisfaction with school, academic progress, being liked by the teacher, communication with other students, the opinion of school officials regarding the student's performance, and other cases (3). One of the variables related to the conditions and status of students is their academic optimism, depending on their emotional, social, growth, and progress (6). Academic optimism is defined as a positive belief in students. Studies have confirmed that emphasizing learning plays a crucial role in academic optimism, significantly influencing students' academic adjustment (11). Furthermore, a notable relationship exists between optimism and students' social adjustment (12). Academic optimism also effectively helps students adapt to university life (13). Moreover, rumination is one of the cognitive structures that can affect the learners' academic performance and adaptation (14). People suffering from rumination believe that they should try to focus on themselves because they think that such focus will give them the insight to find a solution to their problems, but they suffer from rumination, leading to the creation of other problems, including tension and incompatibility (18). Research suggests the role of rumination on students' adjustment to school (19), prediction of students' academic failure (20), and academic disinterest (21). Academic adjustment, as one of the general dimensions of psychosocial adjustment, has been the attention of educational researchers, and many efforts have been made in order to determine the factors affecting it researchers. However, the most essential concern in today's schools is academic incompatibility, misbehavior and incompatibility of the students as a whole. It affects the learning process. The problem is that the relationships of various variables with academic adjustment have been confirmed, but the relationships of variables such as academic optimism and rumination have been neglected in the form of structural relationships in the student community, and there is a major research gap in this field. Therefore, the present study was carried out to mediate the role of rumination in the relationship between academic optimism and academic adjustment of students and seeks to answer the question of whether the role of rumination has a mediating role in the relationship between academic optimism and academic adjustment of students.

The current research method was a descriptive correlation of the type of structural equations. The research population included all male and female students of the second secondary level in Birjand City, Iran, in the academic year 2023-2024. To determine the sample size, Tabachnick and Fidell’s formula was used, i.e. (100+m≤n), where n is the sample size and m is the number of predictor variables (22). In this research, according to the existence of six predictive variables (academic optimism: three dimensions and rumination: three dimensions), the sample size was estimated to be 106 people. Since the above equation calculates the minimum sample size, 120 people were selected as a sample using the available sampling method to ensure the sample size and possible dropouts. The entry criteria included informed consent, being in high school, and not having mental disorders based on the counseling file, and the exit criteria included unwillingness to cooperate and the questionnaires being distorted (we did not have incomplete and distorted questionnaires in the present study). The data collection tools were academic optimism questionnaires by Tschannen-Moran et al. (2013), rumination by Nolen-Hoeksema and Morrow (1991), and academic adjustment by Clark and Clark (1982). SPSS version 24 software (Pearson correlation test) and SmartPLS software were used for data analysis.

The results revealed a positive and significant correlation coefficient between academic optimism and adjustment (P<0.01). The positivity of the obtained coefficient shows a direct relationship between academic optimism and academic adjustment of students. The correlation coefficient between rumination and academic adjustment is negative and significant (P<0.01). The negativity of the obtained coefficient shows an inverse relationship between rumination and students' academic adjustment.According to the results of Table 1, all coefficients of the direct path related to the effect of academic optimism on negative rumination and the effect of academic optimism on academic adjustment are positive and significant (P<0.01). Furthermore, the effect of rumination on academic adjustment is negative and significant (P<0.01). Similarly, the results of the bootstrap test show that the path coefficient of the indirect relationship between academic optimism and academic adjustment through the mediating variable of rumination is significant (P<0.01).

The findings suggest that academic optimism positively and significantly impacts academic adjustment. In other words, as students' academic optimism increases, so does their ability to adjust academically. These results are consistent with previous studies in this area. To explain this, optimism serves as a psychological renewal force. It can positively transform an individual's attitude and self-perception, creating a harmonious blend of psychological and social dimensions. A student with high academic optimism will have a better and more favorable attitude towards expectations and achieving them. With the formation of this attitude, harmony is created between the student and the environment, and if there is enough harmony between him and the environment, there will be more compatibility (29).Another research finding showed that the direct effect of rumination on academic adjustment is negative and significant; in other words, with the increase of rumination, students' academic adjustment decreases. The obtained findings are consistent with the results of previous studies in this field. The explanation suggests that many negative emotions stem from ruminations that arise in the mind after negative experiences. This thinking pattern can hinder a person's ability to seek external emotional and social support. It often leads to widespread anxiety and gradually erodes confidence in one's ability to build necessary relationships. Consequently, individuals may lose the confidence needed to participate insocial and academic situations, making it difficult to fulfill their social needs. This cycle can result in a deeper plunge into unpleasant emotions, complicating the adaptation process (30).The last research finding indicates a significant indirect relationship between academic optimism and academic adjustment, mediated by rumination. This suggests that academic optimism can enhance students' academic adjustment by reducing theirtendency to ruminate. Although direct studies on this specific relationship are lacking, it can be inferred that optimism stems from logical expectations, self-fulfillment, and a sense of life's purpose. Consequently, optimistic individuals tend to focus on positive outcomes rather than negative ones when facing challenges. With a positive outlook, optimistic people emphasize the favorable aspects of situations and events, maintaining positive expectations for future achievements (31). Thus, academic optimism is linked to a decrease in negative thoughts, such as rumination. As a result, a person with rumination is involved in positive emotions with cognitive re-evaluation and appropriate use of strategies. The individual uses adaptive strategies in facing the event situation, which can play a role in increasing performance; based on this, rumination reduces the aggravation of negative emotions. Besides, the increase in positive emotions is adapted to coping behaviors.Among the limitations of the current research was that the current research design was structural equation modeling from the subset of correlation designs, so it is impossible to show the causal relationships between the variables. Furthermore, another limitation of the current study was the method of sampling and conducting the study on high school students of Birjand City, so it is suggested that in future research, the mentioned variables should be conducted on students of other educational levels, students, and in different cities. Based on the results, it is suggested that school counselors and relevant officials use factors such as academic optimism and rumination in preparing educational and intervention programs to promote academic adaptation.

Attention-Deficitdeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects cognitive skills, such as working memory and attention, as well as emotional self-control. In the United States, the prevalence of ADHD is around 7%, while internationally it ranges from 2% to 29%. A study conducted in Tehran, Iran, found that ADHD affects 3% to 6% of 7-12-year-old students. Boys are three times more likely to have ADHD than girls. Additionally, 30% to 85% of adults who had ADHD as children continue to experience symptoms in adulthood. Genetic factors account for over 80% of the causes of ADHD, with other factors including biology, environment, psycho-social factors, psychology, neurochemistry, and nutrition. Neurologically, dysfunction in the frontal lobe-basal nuclei and dopamine pathways can lead to difficulties in attention control and behavior inhibition. The Forbrain device is designed to assist individuals with ADHD using a microphone and bone conductors to enhance their speech sounds through bone conduction. It filters and manipulates the intensity of high frequencies. The device has two types of settings that adjust based on the user's voice energy at a frequency of 1 kHz. Given the importance of auditory attention in children with ADHD and the need for new methods to manage and treat the disorder, this research aims to explore the effectiveness of the Forbrain method in improving auditory attention in children aged 6-11 with ADHD. The goal is to prevent academic failure during the early years of learning and provide complementary treatments for this condition.

This research has a specific purpose and uses a quasi-experimental method with a pre-test and post-test design, including a control group. This study focuses on the treatment of Forbrain stimulation and includes two groups. The first group received ten sessions of Forbrain stimulation, each session lasting 20 minutes, three times a week. The second group participates as a control. The research population consists of children aged 6 to 11 with hyperactivity who were referred to Tavanesh Treatment Center in 2022. A minimum of 15 people per group is required to ensure a sufficient sample size. Therefore, 20 people were selected for each group, considering the possibility of dropping out or non-participation. A psychiatrist diagnosed these people with hyperactivity and met the inclusion criteria.In order to collect information related to literature and research background, the library method was used to review books, articles, and related sources. In collaboration with the Tavanesh Treatment Center, the researcher collected information about the sample. They provided explanations about the specialized and ethical aspects of the research. After obtaining consent from the child's parents and completing the child's information form, the 48-question Connors questionnaire was filled out by the parents. Additionally, the IVA-2 test was used to gather further information. Two groups underwent tests both before and after treatment, while the control group was tested in two phases without receiving any treatment. Children were initially referred to the Tavanesh Center by psychiatrists.In the first session of the pre-test, a clinical interview was conducted with the simultaneous presence of the child and parents and confirmation of the diagnosis, medication status and essentialexplanations, and the absence of epilepsy, tumors, metal implants, heart batteries, and other mental disorders and after announcing the readiness of the family and the child. The children were required to perform the IVA-2 test in a separate environment, then implement the therapeutic interventions, with the help of the family, and determine a specific schedule regarding the day and time of the sessions that the children would visit. After completing ten intervention sessions in two experimental groups, the first post-test session was held exactly like the pre-test session.Data analysis included descriptive and inferential parts. The descriptive section presented the mean, standard deviation, age, and education level. In the inferential part, covariance analysis was performed using SPSS-26 statistical software. The significance level for all tests was set at 0.05.

This study involved 40 children diagnosed with ADHD, selected based on their age, education level, gender, and type of hyperactivity. Among the participants, the age distribution was as follows: 20% were six years old, 15% were seven years old, 20% were eight years old, 15% were nine years old, 20% were ten years old, and 10% were 11 years old. The gender breakdown included 55% male and 45% female participants. Additionally, half of the children were diagnosed with attention deficit, while the other half had both hyperactivity and attention deficit.The average pre-test and post-test auditory attention for the Forbrain group is 90.90 and 99.40, and for the control group is 63.20 and 68.65. Auditory attention scores increased in Forbrain intervention after the study. However, this increase was much higher in the Forbrain intervention group, indicating the effectiveness of the Forbrain intervention on the auditory attention of the samples. The univariate covariance analysis testshowed that the average scores of the listening attention post-test for the Forbrain group (99.40) were significantly higher than the control group (68.65). This shows that Forbrain intervention effectively affects the auditory attention variable in the samples.The results of the present study showed that after controlling the pre-test scores, the group’s effect on the post-test scores of listening attention is also significant. Regarding the effectiveness of the Forbrain method, after controlling the pre-test scores, the group’s effect on the post-test scores of listening attention is also significant, and this method has been effective.Therefore, this method seems to affect the auditory attention of children suffering from ADHD disorder and can be considered suitable,considering the clinical conditions of the patient and available facilities. In addition, the time and cost required for this method should be considered so that the best method can be suggested to therapists and patients.

The findings of this study have essential implications for the treatment of children with ADHD. The Forbrain method provides a new approach that targets the neurobiological mechanisms responsible for auditory attention deficits in ADHD. By strengthening the neural circuits involved in auditory processing, this technique can potentially improve attentional abilities and reduce the negative impact of ADHD symptoms on the child's daily functioning. The Forbrain method is a unique auditory feedback system that uses bone conduction to enhance the user's perception of sound. It is specifically designed to improve speaking, language, and communication skills and has been used to help people with various learning difficulties. The results of this study show that even after controlling the pre-test scores, the group that used transcranial electrical stimulation and the control group showed a significant difference in the average auditory attention scores in the post-test phase. This shows that the Forbrain method is effective in improving listening attention. By targeting auditory attention deficits and improving listening abilities, this technique can contribute to better daily functioning and overall well-being in children with ADHD. Both methods can have the same effect on the auditory attention of hyperactive children. Therefore, when choosing the proper method, it is necessary to pay attention to the clinical conditions of the patient and the available facilities.

Stress is the biological reaction of the human body and is the result of pressure, emotional, mental, or physical challenges such as unexpected and threatening events. Stress can become a serious problem in people's lives and destroys a person's performance, behavior, responsibility, and ability to think. Stress hormones create a sense of fight or flight; thus, we can react to dangerous situations. Despite the fact that stress is useful in some situations and is a sign of health, high stress can have negative effects in the long term. Therefore, identifying the state of stress in everyday life can be a preventive solution to control stressful factors and prevent bad stress from persisting and its complications. Today, various tools are used to measure the sympathetic axis of stress, such as measuring heart rate in smartwatches, measuring galvanic skin resistance (GSR) in lie measuring devices, or more complex tools that use a combination of them and even breathing rate. GSR is defined as a change in the electrical properties of the skin. The signal can be used to capture autonomic nerve responses as a parameter of sweat gland function. The Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT) is a neuropsychological test widely used for experimental and clinical purposes. It evaluates the ability to control cognitive interference. Meanwhile, wearable artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as a valuable tool for this purpose. The study hypothesized that the GSR could classify the Stroop test as a stress condition for grades from easy to hard.

The method consisted of two parts: The first part: Designing and assembly of instrument: 1) Skin conductance sensors module (GSR), 2) STMf032k6t6 module, and 3) Ac (USB to Serial) module. The GSR module connects to an STM32 microcontroller via an output pin on port A1, which performs the analog-to-digital conversion. This conversion transforms the voltage into a digital number that is sent to the recording module. A USB-to-serial connection is utilized to communicate with the Rx base. Additionally, MATLAB software is employed to read GSR data. The GSR sensor records stress by detecting changes in electrical activity, which occur due to sweat gland activity. To accurately capture these changes, the electrodes must be highly sensitive and capable of transmitting the data to the recording device. Skin conductance is measured using easily applied skin electrodes. Essentially, the GSR sensor functions like an ohmmeter, as it measures the electrical conductivity between two points. Second part: Design the stress protocol, data recording, and learning machine to categorize stress levels. In this study, the Stroop test was used to detect Word and Color. The 21 healthy young volunteers sat in a chair in front of the monitor. The participant was asked to respond to the stimuli (color or word recognition) of the six-color Stroop test (blue, red, green, yellow, purple, and white) by left-clicking the computer mouse. The test consisted of six sets of 40 with intervals between 4 s, 3 s, and 2 s trials. GSR signals recorded at three levels of low, medium, and high stress are also included in the data. After recording and for each set, GSR data was segmented into 10-second segments; features were extracted from each segment, including the following: Mean, median, SD, Max, Min, Low and high-frequency band average, and SD, Slope, and Zero crossing of GSR signal.

After recording, for each stage, GSR data was segmented into 10-second segments; 11 features were extracted from each segment, including the following. Mean (μ) and standard deviation (σ) of GSR plots with N samples. The minimum and maximum values of the GSR part indicate the range of changes of the part. The median value of the segment in statistics and probability theory is one of the measures of central tendency. The median is a number that divides a statistical population or a probability distribution into two equal parts. The slope of the GSR plot estimates the change in skin resistance value over 10 seconds. The average crossing time from zero is calculated by averaging the crossing times of the GSR signal. In calculating this feature, the average value of the signal is zero. The average and standard deviation of the low and high-frequency content of the GSR segment can be calculated by two low-pass and high-pass filters with a cutoff frequency of 2.5 Hz or the Fourier transform of the segment. Since the galvanic response of the skin depends on the perspiration of the skin, which is a slow process like body temperature, the sampling frequency is considered to be 10 Hz, and the low and high-frequency bands are considered between 0-2.5 and 2.5-5 Hz.After extracting the features from the 10-second segments recorded in four states of relaxation, low, medium, and high stress, a three-layer neural network classifier that includes two hidden layers with ten neurons in the first layer and five neurons in the second layer and an output layer with one neuron has been trained with 70% samples. The activity functions of this network are also considered sigmoid. The number of stimuli in each Stroop test was 40. Based on this, the recording time of each test with 2-, 3-, and 4-secondinter-stimulus intervals was 60, 90, and 120 seconds, respectively. Since these signals are segmented into 10-second pieces, the total number of pieces in four situations is 1452 pieces. A Stroop test was performed for both color and word recognition modes.Lunberg-Marquardt algorithm, which is a combination of gradient descent and Newton algorithms in classical optimization, has been a training method that has been used to train the network with 60% data. The results of the10-fold validation of the neural network classifier using training and test data showed that this classifier was able to provide accuracy of 95.91% and 92.63% for training and test data. Based on these results, the sensitivity of the classifier to the state of rest is lower than in other states. This value was higher for the medium stress.

One of the promising non-invasive methods that has been widely used in the detection of stress and emotions is electrodermal activity (EDA). EDA has a tonic and phasic component called skin conductance level and skin conductance response (SCR) named GSR. The same study was collected from the result of the deconvolution process, namely the sample mean, the first absolute difference, and the normalized first difference as the input of the classification process using the extreme learning machine (ELM). The output of stress level classification was mild, moderate, and severe. Using cvxEDA is more accurate or smooth than CDA. However, both methods can separate SCR from primary skin conductance and show small peaks from SCR. The results of the classification process showed that both CDA and cvxEDA methods with 50 hidden layers in ELM had high accuracy in stress level classification, which was 95.56% and 94.45%, respectively. This study developed a stress level classification method using ELM and SCR statistical features. The results showed that EDA can classify the stress level of the Stroop test with a high accuracy of 94%. This model can help people take control of their mental health while working too much, which can lead to anxiety and depression due to untreated stress.

Executive functions refer to an individual’s actions for self-regulation, controlled and purposeful behavior, and maximizing future outcomes. In recent years, with significant growth in preschool centers, particularly in urban areas, parents and educators have become increasingly aware of the role of executive functions in learning. According to Miyake’s three-component model classification, fundamental executive functions include updating working memory, inhibitory control, and flexibility. Therefore, inhibitory control is recognized as a foundational component in executive functions. According to Barkley, inhibitory control aids in delaying responses and controlling interference, playing a crucial role in behavior regulation. Given the significance of executive functions, extensive studies have been conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of educational programs aiming to strengthen children and adolescents’ executive functions, both domestically and internationally. However, a considerable portion of these studies has focused on investigating executive functions in preschool children or children with special needs. Additionally, despite the importance of executive functions in learning and individual life, studies focused on skills associated with executive functions are limited. This limitation highlights the need to formulate and implement programs to strengthen executive functions, leading to the current research that aims to develop an educational package to enhance executive functions and determine its impact on inhibitory control in preschool children.

The present study followed an experimental pre-test-post-test design with a control group and a follow-up period. The statistical population included preschoolers aged 5-6 in Tehran, Iran, who were enrolled in preschool centers in the 2022-2023 academic year. Among educational districts, Area 8 was randomly selected, and from the preschool centers in this area, two pre-schools were randomly chosen: One as the experimental group and one as the control group. Twenty students were randomly selected from each pre-school, and a total of 40 students participated in the research. Eventually, due to incomplete data from one student in the control group, data from 19 students in both the control and experimental groups were analyzed. The primary objective of this research was to examine the validity and reliability of the developed executive functions educational package and investigate its effectiveness on inhibitory control in preschool children. The following 4-stage experiment was conducted to achieve this goal:First Stage: Conducting a literature review for the research background.Second Stage: Designing an educational package - training to enhance inhibitory response skills and assessing content validity. To assess content validity using the Lawshe method, the content was evaluated by ten specialists in executive functions evaluated the content. The content validity ratio (CVR) and content validity index (CVI) were evaluated, and the content was modified based on the experts' opinions.Third Stage: Pilot study. Ten available students underwent 12 one-hour sessions over two days per week. After a reassessment, the number of sessions was ultimately adjusted to 20 one-hour sessions conducted thrice weekly.Fourth Stage: Main study. Before the experiment, parents of the students in both the experimental and control groups responded to the inhibitory response section of the Brief questionnaire. Then, the educational package was implemented for 20 one-hour sessions over three days per week with the students in the experimental group. The control group students did not receive this training. After the experiment, parents of both groups responded to the Brief behavioral questionnaire as a post-test. After a two-month interval from the pre-test, a follow-up test was conducted, and parents of both groups answered the Brief questionnaire again, and the collected data was analyzed.

To understand the average performance and distribution of test scores in the inhibitory response variable, statistical descriptions of inhibitory response variables for both the experimental and control groups were examined, including means, standard deviations, and skewness. In the control group, the total scores for inhibitory response were 35 in the pre-test, 34.84 in the post-test, and 34.78 in the follow-up, indicating very slight changes. In the experimental group, the average scores were 35.42 in the pre-test, 28.52 in the post-test, and 25.5 in the follow-up, showing a decreasing trend. The average performance in the control group compared to the experimental group had an imperceptible difference in the pretest (0.42), a difference of 6.32 scores in the post-test favoring the control group, and reduced to 11.11 in the follow-up. This trend suggests a decrease in inhibitory response scores and an improvement in inhibitory response skills in the experimental group compared to the control group. At the same time, no significant difference was observed in the control group in the scores between pre-test, post-test, and follow-up.Additionally, to investigate the homogeneity of the variables’ covariance, Mauchly’s sphericity test was utilized. Given that Mauchly’s sphericity test is less than 0.5, indicating a significant violation of homogeneity assumption (P<0.05; χ²=6.62; ε=0.03), suggesting that covariance homogeneity is questioned. Therefore, adjustments for the violation of assumptions were made using the Huynh-Feldt Epsilon correction due to the adequate sample size in this study.The summary of the within-group analysis of variance indicates a significant effect on inhibitory response (P< 0.001; F=145.83). Moreover, there is a significant interaction effect between inhibitory response and group (P<0.001; F=135.16). This interaction suggests that different results are obtained from combining levels of inhibitory response (pre-test, post-test, and follow-up) and group levels (control and experimental). The between-group analysis of variance, based on observed means, reveals a significant difference between the two groups (P<0.001; F=95.36), indicating a significant effect of the experiment on the experimental group.Finally, a Bonferroni follow-up test was employed to determine which two intervals differ significantly among the three-test means.

The primary objective of this research was to develop an executive functions educational package and determine its impact on inhibitory response in 5-6-year-old preschool children. Improvements in executive functions during the pre-school years occur due to physiological changes in the brain, specifically in the pre-frontal cortex, and this region’s increased connectivity and integration with other brain areas. While the physiological reasons behind the development of executive abilities have been somewhat clarified, less attention has been paid to the influence of environmental factors on the development of these skills during this age period. Additionally, limited studies have focused on developing educational packages targeting executive functions and examining their effect specifically on the preschool age group.In this research, the program content is based on Barkley’s approach, emphasizing exercises such as emotional recognition, appropriate expression and management, understanding others’ perspectives, proper interaction in social situations, and ultimately, exercises in inhibitory response and thinking before acting. The research results indicate the effectiveness of the educational intervention. Moreover, ten experts in the executive function field have endorsed the educational package’s validity. However, the role of age ensures the sustained positive effects of cognitive interventions, in addition to the continuation of educational exercises. Vas et al.’s research findings have shown that the effectiveness of cognitive training is more impactful and enduring when children are in the early stages of growth and early childhood.

In cognitive linguistics, researchers argue that but the entire cognitive system influences language structure, not just specific brain areas. Embodied Construction Grammar (ECG) connects language to the sensory-motor system and human conceptual experiences. Grounded-embodied theories suggest that bodily interactions with the physical and social environment shape language and thought. In this context, motor simulation is crucial for understanding language. Research shows that comprehending language activates the motor and pre-motor cortex, specifically in response to motor language involving specific body parts like the hands, feet, and mouth. Motor experiences are highly significant from infancy. Children continually develop their motor foundations during this period through various learning processes. Children’s growth and development begin with these basic movements. Motor experiences, such as interacting with the physical environment and objects and communicating with parents, are the main foundations of cognitive-motor development, which can lead to the perception and even conceptualization of movement.However, a key unresolved debate is how motor impairment in children with Cerebral Palsy (CP) affects motor cortex involvement while processing action verbs. This study, the first of its kind, investigates this issue to inform diagnostic and therapeutic interventions for children with CP.

This descriptive-analytical case-control study involved two groups of Persian-speaking children aged 7 to 12. The first group consisted of 13 children with CP (6 boys, 7 girls; mean age=9.38±1.50), recruited from special schools for children with developmental disabilities. Special schools or classes are provided for children with special educational needs for special consideration and support, following the mainstream curriculum in normal education settings. The second group, comprising 13 Typically Developing (TD) children (6 boys, 7 girls; mean age=9.38±1.45), was selected from public schools. Both groups were matched for age, gender, socio-economic status, and grade level.The CP group excluded children with neuropsychiatric comorbidities, intellectual disabilities, or metabolic, genetic, and epileptic disorders. All participants had normal or corrected-to-normal vision and hearing, and their developmental quotient/IQ fell within normal limits. They could use the keys on a computer keyboard. These factors were obtained according to school documentation of general health care screening programs regarding the outcomes of interviews with parents of children and examination of children by an experienced child psychologist, an optometrist, and an audiologist. Regarding a standard scale of mobility and manual function, 54% of children were classified at level III (walks with a power wheelchair), and 46% of children were classified at level II (walks with a walker). Lack of parental consent, scheduling problems, and non-compliance with inclusion criteria prevented their enrollment.The experimental task involved 12 black-and-white stick-figure images representing action verbs related to body parts (hands and feet). Each image was paired with three types of Persian verbs: (1) a matching verb, (2) a same-effector mismatch verb (using the same body part but unrelated to the image), and (3) a different-effector mismatch verb (using a different body part). In order to use images that appropriately describe specific motor actions, facial details were intentionally removed. As a result, 36 verb-image pairs were presented to participants.

Descriptive statistics categorized the data based group (CP vs. TD) and verb type (matching, same-effector mismatch, different-effector mismatch). The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test confirmed the normality of data distribution. A one-way ANOVA was conducted to explore inter-variable relationships, with a significance threshold of P<0.05.Of the 26 participants, 13 were assigned to the case group, and the remaining 13 formed the control group. Overall, 12 boys (46.15%) and 14 girls (53.84%) enrolled in the study. Without considering the type of verb in the CP group, the minimum reaction time was 2.14 seconds, and in the control group, it was 1.04 seconds. The percentage of non-response in the control and CP groups was 0.4% and 1.5%, respectively.A significant difference was found between the two groups in all verb types. CP participants had slower Reaction Times (RTs) across the board, including Matching verbs [CP Mean=4.36, TD Mean=3.06 (P<0.001)], Same-effector mismatches [CP Mean=4.12, TD Mean=3.23 (P<0.001)], and Different-effector mismatches [CP mean=4.26, TD mean=3.41 (P<0.001)].Additionally, TD children outperformed CP children in the frequency of correct responses across all verb types, including Matching verbs (CP=60.3%, TD=80.8%), Same-effector mismatches (CP=59.6%, TD=64.1%), and Different-effector mismatches (CP=67.9%, TD=76.3%).Repeated measures ANOVA followed by Bonferroni post-hoc tests indicated no significant effect of verb types on RTs in the CP group. However, significant differences were observed between matching and different-effector non-matching conditions in the TD group.

This study aimed to ascertain how embodied cognition plays an essential role in understanding language related to action verbs among children with CP. Currently, a wealth of evidence indicates that sensory and motor grounding is essential for action-language comprehension, but little is known about their potential contributions to processing motor simulation in children with CP. Predominantly, the present investigation intended to identify how the motor simulation of the CP groups differ from those of TD peers and address any significant differences in reaction time across conditions in each group.The present study highlights the role of embodied cognition in understanding action verbs, particularly in children with CP. Sensory-motor grounding is essential for action-language comprehension, but children with CP show distinct differences in motor simulation compared to their TD peers. These findings add to the growing number of studies highlighting the complex nature of verb impairments in specific populations Because of the interaction between sensorimotor cortex activation and psychological factors, they suggest that cognition is inseparable from the body and is shaped by sensory-motor experiences. Early identification of linguistic processing deficits in sensory-motor systems can aid in better memory representation and understanding related words, specifically in Persian-speaking children with CP.Beyond, their theoretical significance, the present findings have practical implications for CP children. Recognizing information about how these patients perceive movement, has implications for choosing timely and tailored interventions, therapeutic approaches, and individualized education plans.

Communication styles are one of the skills that can help teenagers reduce anxiety and interact correctly with others. Communication skills can be defined as conveying a message that includes shared understanding between contexts where communication occurs. In addition to communication styles, wisdom is also essential during adolescence. Yang stated that wisdom consists of three components, including cognitive coherence, the embodiment of wisdom in actions, and positive influence on oneself and others in the long term to maintain collective interests. Grossman defined wisdom as a combination of personality traits with three cognitive, reflective and emotional components, which cognitive component refers to a person’s constant desire to understand human conditions and especially intra-personal and interpersonal issues, in addition to the knowledge resulting from this desire. The reflective component refers to the ability to understand issues from multiple angles, as well as self-evaluation (self-evaluation) and self-insight, and the affective component is defined as compassionate love, consideration, and kindness (i.e., a positive empathic attitude toward others). Despite the difficulty in defining wisdom among researchers and experts in this field, a general agreement exists that wisdom includes knowledge, insight, reflection, and combining one’s resources with the interests and well-being of others. In this regard, one variable affecting wisdom is the style of thinking. Thinking styles, sometimes called rational styles, refer to a person’s preference for using a specific thinking process. According to Sternberg’s thinking styles, there are 13 types divided into five functional dimensions: form, level, territory, and tendency. Furthermore, adolescence is the most suitable stage for examining decision-making ability. Decision-making styles are a unique model that shows how people respond to a decision-making situation or interpret that situation. Understanding decision-making styles helps us grasp why people respond differently to the same situation. Each individual employs unique decision-making processes. One of these new interventions is early communication skills for teenagers. Effective communication skills empower individuals to reflect on themselves and cultivate meaningful relationships. This often involves fostering better connections with parents, but the focus remains on personal choices and what serves one’s best interests in relationships with parents, teachers, friends, and others in one’s life. Sometimes, this requires challenging public opinion and prioritizing speaking up over staying silent. These skills are crucial for making wise and healthy decisions, even when those decisions are tough. This perspective is based on a behavioral model called dialectical behavior therapy, which teaches people skills to be more effective in their lives. In other words, the skills that help people to live a happier and healthier life by changing things and to get closer to what they love in their lives.

The current research was of a semi-experimental type with a pre-test, post-test, 45-day follow-up test with an experimental and control group, and random assignment with an ethics code ID: IR.IAU.KHUISF.REC.1403.265 from Khorasgan Islamic Azad University (Isfahan, Iran). The statistical population included all adolescents aged 13 to 15 in the city of Isfahan in the academic year of 2023-2024, randomly selected from among the six districts of Isfahan, and then two schools were selected in that district. First, middle school students were randomly selected, and then among the 13-15-year-old students who were willing to cooperate with the researcher. Considering the entry criteria, 40 people were randomly selected into two experimental and control groups (20 people each). The required number of samples was calculated based on similar studfies, such as Yonesi et al.’s study, taking into account an effect size of 40%, a confidence level of 95%, a test power of 80%, and a dropout rate of 10% for each group of 20 people. Iclusion criteria include teenage girls aged 13-15 years, willingness and informed consent in the research plan, cooperation and activity in the research project, and not receiving other psychological training. Exclusion criteria include the absence of more than two sessions andadolescents who had psychological disorders and received other psychological trainings and interventions. Subjects in the experimental group received ten 60-minute sessions of Van Dijk’s communication skills first aid intervention, while subjects in the control group did not receive training. After completing the first aid training on communication skills for the experimental group, both experimental and control groups were tested by questionnaires to measure the dependent variable (communication styles, wisdom, thinking, and decision-making style.

When people start practicing mindfulness meditation, their relationship with the people around them improves significantly, and they can easily solve interpersonal problems. This profoundimprovement in human relationships has various reasons. The reason for improving relationships after mindfulness meditation is that when the mind becomes aware, the capacity to accept the experience and the events that happen in each moment of a person’s life increases. This spirit of readiness to face whatever happens automatically causes the improvement of relationships with it becomes others because the person does not have prejudice or denial and looks at people as they are without prejudice. Additionally, the results showed that the difference between the average of the research variables in the groups in the post-test and follow-up phases is significant. In other words, a significant difference was found between the sample subjects in the control test groups in the research variables in the post-test and follow-up stages (P<0.001).

According to this study, the first aid intervention for adolescent communication skills is an effective method for improving the communication, wisdom, thinking, and decision-making styles of 13-15-year-old adolescents.

The ability to move elements within a sentence structure, known as topicalization, is a fundamental characteristic of natural languages and plays a crucial role in discourse analysis and understanding. In Persian, interrogative complements generally appear in a post-object position and can be moved to different locations within a sentence, significantly impacting discourse and communicative dynamics. This syntactic flexibility is particularly relevant for creating marked structures that serve specific communicative functions, such as emphasizing or clarifying information.This study’s primary aim is to examine how the brain processes the movement of interrogative complements to the sentence-initial position in Persian, utilizing ERPs to capture the neural responses associated with this syntactic operation. The focus is on the N200 component, a neural marker associated with detecting syntactic anomalies and structural parsing, located in the left anterior region of the brain. Friederici’s language processing model, postulating that this component is crucial for structural information processing, provides the theoretical framework for this investigation.

Four different syntactic conditions, each involving repositioning the interrogative complement, were designed to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying topicalization in Persian. For each condition, 50 sentences were created, resulting in a total of 200 sentences. These sentences were presented to participants on a computer screen in a controlled experimental setting. Participants were instructed to read the sentences silently while maintaining minimal facial and lip movement to ensure the accuracy of the electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings.The experimental procedure involved displaying sentences one at a time, each being broken down into constituent phrases. Participants’ brain responses were recorded using a 64-electrode EEG cap, focusing on the N200 component. The primary task for participants was to comprehend the sentences without vocalizing them, thereby isolating the cognitive processes involved in syntactic parsing and comprehension.The EEG data were preprocessed to remove artifacts and noise, ensuring that the recorded ERPs accurately reflected the brain’s response to the syntactic manipulations. The analysis focused on the N200 component, which was expected to show variations in amplitude depending on the syntactic condition. Statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS-27 software, comparing the ERP responses across the different conditions to identify significant differences in brain activity related to the topicalization of interrogative complements.

The findings reveal that the topicalization of interrogative complements in Persian leads to distinct neural responses, as evidenced by variations in the N200 component. Specifically, when the interrogative complement is moved to the beginning of the sentence, there is a significant increase in the N200 amplitude in the left anterior region of the brain. This suggests that the brain recognizes this syntactic movement as a marked structure, requiring additional cognitive resources for processing.These results support the hypothesis that the topicalization process in Persian is not merely a surface-level syntactic change but involves deeper neurophysiological mechanisms. The increased N200 amplitude indicates that the brain engages in more intensive structural parsing and anomaly detection when dealing with sentences that deviate from the canonical SOV order.The study’s findings have significant implications for our understanding of language processing and the neurobiological basis of syntax. The increased N200 amplitude associated with the topicalization of interrogative complements suggests that the brain’s response to syntactic movement is consistent with Friederici’s language processing model. This model posits that the left anterior region of the brain plays a crucial role in handling structural information and detecting syntactic anomalies.Moreover, the study highlights the importance of marked structures in communication. By repositioning interrogative complements to the beginning of a sentence, speakers can create emphasis and clarity, facilitating more effective discourse. The neural evidence provided by this study underscores the cognitive effort involved in processing these marked structures, reflecting the brain’s capacity to adapt to syntactic variability in language.In addition, the findings contribute to the broader field of psycholinguistics by providing empirical evidence of the neurophysiological processes underlying syntactic movement. This research bridges the gap between linguistic theory and cognitive neuroscience, demonstrating how abstract syntactic operations are realized in the brain.

In conclusion, this study provides compelling evidence that the topicalization of interrogative complements in Persian involves distinct neurophysiological processes, as indicated by variations in the N200 component. The results align with Friederici’s language processing model, highlighting the brain’s role in structural parsing and anomaly detection. These findings enhance our understanding of the cognitive mechanisms underlying language processing and underscore the significance of marked structures in communication.The implications of this research extend beyond Persian, offering insights into the universal principles of syntax and discourse processing in natural languages. By elucidating the neural basis of topicalization, this study contributes to the broader endeavor of understanding the intricate relationship between language and the brain.

Studies of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), a condition marked by deficits in social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors, highlight the intricate relationship between language and the brain. First described by Leo Kanner and Hans Asperger, ASD encompasses a spectrum of abilities, ranging from individuals with severe cognitive impairments to those with high intelligence but persistent social and communication challenges. Language development varies widely, with some individuals remaining nonverbal while others face subtle linguistic difficulties.Autism prevalence has increased significantly, with recent estimates indicating rates of 1 in 36 children, disproportionately affecting boys. Language deficits in ASD span pragmatic, lexical-semantic, prosodic, and discourse abilities. For linguistic assessments, protocols like the P.M.E.C. evaluate these skills, aiding in diagnosis and intervention strategies. Studies show individuals with ASD exhibit delays in language acquisition, reduced vocabulary, and difficulties in understanding idiomatic expressions, Gricean principles, and word-sentence coherence.Comparative studies reveal that linguistic challenges in ASD are consistent across languages and populations. Research highlights atypical semantic networks, local processing bias, and challenges in semantic clustering, particularly in abstract categories like fruits. Despite these challenges, visual aids, imitation, and repetition can support language learning in individuals with ASD.Assessment using P.M.E.C. has extended beyond ASD to include individuals with brain damage, showing varying impacts of right and left hemisphere damage on linguistic abilities. Insights from such studies inform interventions tailored to improve the language and cognitive abilities of individuals with ASD.

Participants This quantitative study employed an experimental design to assess language disorders in Persian-speaking adults with autism. In 2021, participants were recruited purposefully from speech therapy centers, the Tehran Autism Society, exceptional education centers, and the Tehran Welfare Organization, Iran. These centers provided access to individuals diagnosed with autism during childhood or adolescence, aged 25 to 44. After initial screening and applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, 13 adults with autism were selected.Inclusion Criteria: Native Persian speakers aged 25-44 years. Autism diagnosis confirmed through clinical records.

Table 2. Results of comparing the two groups using the paired t-test (parametric test) showed significant differences between the autism group and controls across all subtests, highlighting impairments in lexical-semantic skills among individuals with autism:Table 2. Results of comparing the two groups using the paired t-test (parametric test) Subtest P-value Verbal Fluency (Free) 0.003 Verbal Fluency (Orthographic: b) 0.004 Verbal Fluency (Semantic: Clothes) 0.000 Semantic Judgment 0.014

Consistent with prior research (e.g., Karami 2011 (15), Howlin 2003 (23); Friedman and Sterling 2019 (32)), the study found significant communication impairments in Persian-speaking adults with autism. Notably, moderate to severe deficits were observed in three subtests (38% impairment in Verbal Fluency [Free], 61% in Verbal Fluency [Semantic: Clothes], and 46% in Semantic Judgment).

Relatively Better Performance in Phonemic Tasks:

Participants performed better in the Verbal fluency (Orthographic: b) task (0% impairment), likely due to the reliance on formal phonemic cues rather than semantic retrieval.

Similar deficits in vocabulary and comprehension have been noted in adults with high-functioning autism and Asperger’s syndrome (23).Differences in performance across semantic categories (e.g., animals vs. clothing) align with findings by Foldager et al. (2023), emphasizing variability in task-specific experiences (30).

The impairments in lexical-semantic tasks reinforce the need for targeted therapeutic interventions focusing on vocabulary development and semantic relationships. Improving these skills can significantly enhance communication abilities and overall quality of life for individuals with autism.

This study highlights the importance of addressing lexical-semantic skill deficits in autistic Persian-speaking adults. The findings underscore the need for tailored rehabilitation programs and provide valuable insights for academic, clinical, and research applications.