مجله تحقیقات حمایت و حفاظت جنگلها و مراتع ایران
سال بیست و دوم شماره 2 (پیاپی 44، پاییز و زمستان 1403)

In recent decades, intentional and unintentional forest fires have posed a serious threat to natural resources. These fires not only lead to direct human and financial losses but also contribute to the destruction of ecosystems, soil degradation, and loss of biodiversity. Additionally, they disrupt the balance of watersheds by reducing vegetation cover, increasing the risk of soil erosion, altering hydrological cycles, and ultimately affecting water quality and availability. Understanding fire-prone areas and their contributing factors is essential for effective fire management, risk reduction, and the development of preventive strategies. Fire risk mapping serves as a valuable tool for identifying critical areas and implementing targeted mitigation measures.

Fire risk mapping is an effective tool for identifying critical areas and mitigating fire hazards. This study evaluates the efficiency of the Geographic Information System (GIS), Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), and Frequency Ratio (FR) methods in mapping fire-prone areas in Astara, a city in western Gilan province covering 42,000 hectares. Astara is part of the Hyrcanian forests and has a humid climate with an average annual rainfall of 650 mm and a mean temperature of 13.1°C. In this study, the AHP method assigned weights to fire risk criteria based on expert surveys, while the FR method used the distribution of 70% of observed fire incidents. The obtained weights were applied to the study criteria to generate weighted maps. These maps were then integrated to produce a fire susceptibility map, categorizing fire risk into five classes, from very low to very high. To validate the results, 30% of recorded fire incidents and the ROC curve were used. The validation data were not included in the modeling phase.

In the AHP method, the consistency index (CI) was below 0.1, indicating reliable parameter selection. Model validation showed that the AHP method had an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.826, while the FR method achieved an AUC of 0.894. These results suggest that the FR model is more accurate for mapping fire-prone areas in Astara. The lower accuracy of the AHP model is likely due to potential errors in the pairwise comparison of criteria.Among the evaluated factors, proximity to villages (weight: 0.436) and roads (weight: 0.314) were the most influential in fire occurrence. In contrast, population density had the least impact (weight: 0.062).

In Astara, fires are concentrated in the northern and southeastern regions, particularly in watersheds No. 1, 4, and 7. The fire susceptibility map indicates that 1.82% of the study area is highly fire-prone, while 22.9% has moderate sensitivity. With proper management, fires in these areas can be controlled effectively. High-risk basins have a dense village distribution with short distances to roads, making them more susceptible to fires. Therefore, promoting public participation and equipping villagers with fire extinguishers can help prevent rapid fire spread.

Oak decline is a critical issue in Zagros forest ecosystems. Disruptions in nutrient and water uptake, exacerbated by environmental stress, weaken trees, leading to deterioration. Soil physico-chemical characteristics significantly influence forest habitat performance. Given the spread of dieback trees in Kurdistan province, this study aimed to investigate changes in deep soil parameters associated with control stands (healthy trees) and dieback trees in the coppice stands of Marivan county, northwest Kurdistan province.

The study was conducted in dieback (Garan) and control (Dolah Naw) forest stands in Marivan county. Within each stand, ten trees (five healthy and five dieback) were selected across north and south aspects (totaling 30 trees: 10 in the control, 20 in the dieback habitat) and numbered in 2018. Soil samples were collected on the northern side of the crown, one meter from the tree trunk at a depth of 20-40 cm (first week of August). Laboratory analyses determined moisture percentage, pH, electrical conductivity, available phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen percentage, organic carbon percentage, lime percentage, calcium, and magnesium. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using PC-ORD 5 software was employed to assess the effect of deterioration on soil physico-chemical characteristics.

Statistically significant differences were observed among the ten physical and chemical parameters across the six treatments. The highest average values for electrical conductivity (599 decisiemens/cm), moisture (13.1%), lime (13.8%), available phosphorus (13 mg/kg), and potassium (1317 mg/kg) were found in soil near trees on the northern slope of control stands. Conversely, the highest levels of organic carbon (3.75%), nitrogen (0.32%), and calcium (44.2 milliequivalents/100g) were observed in soils beneath healthy trees on the southern slope of control stands. Generally, control stands (both northern and southern aspects) exhibited higher values for most soil physico-chemical parameters, except pH and magnesium. Dieback trees showed nutrient and macronutrient deficiencies, with lower element concentrations in the soil under their crowns. PCA revealed that electrical conductivity and moisture had the highest positive loading (0.42) on the first component, while organic carbon and nitrogen loaded at 0.41. Calcium, lime, and pH loaded on the second component with positive values of 0.55, 0.53, and 0.49, respectively. PCA also indicated better soil moisture in healthy trees on the northern slope.

Soil physico-chemical parameters and macroelement concentrations were generally higher near trees in control stands compared to dieback-affected stands. For optimal management of dieback trees in the research area, soil enrichment and strengthening, enhanced protection measures (livestock grazing and traditional exploitation control), increased forest restoration and development in dry areas (particularly southern slopes), and sanitary cuts (branches and stems with red cracking and deterioration) are recommended.

The evaluation of disturbances using satellite imagery is a crucial sub-field in natural resource science, serving as a tool for monitoring changes such as fire and livestock grazing in forest and pasture ecosystems. Grazing intensity and fires are significant disturbances in arid and semi-arid rangelands. Remote sensing for burned area mapping has been extensively studied. Spectral indices are widely used to monitor vegetation cover changes, particularly post-fire, and to generate burned area maps. Given the vastness and inaccessibility of Iran's mountain rangelands, multi-spectral remote sensing data was employed to identify burned areas. This research aimed to determine the most effective auxiliary data to enhance classification accuracy for identifying and delineating burned semi-steppe rangelands, and to estimate burned pasture extent for post-fire management using Landsat-8 imagery.

Burned rangeland sites were selected based on information from the Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province Department of Natural Resources Protection and local expert input. Old fire occurrence and grazing intensity at selected sites were determined. Twenty-seven burned sites, representing old fire occurrences and high to medium grazing intensity, were delineated using GPS polygons. Maximum likelihood classification (MLC) in Idrisi TerrSet software was used to identify burned pasture areas. Auxiliary data, including pan-sharpened raw bands, Tasseled Cap transformation components, digital elevation model (DEM) derivatives, principal component analysis (PCA) components, and the Normalized Burn Ratio-Thermal (NBRT) index, were evaluated to improve classification accuracy. Overall and Kappa accuracies were assessed using error matrices, and Friedman's rank test was used to compare the effectiveness of different data combinations.

The combination of DEM derivatives and the NBRT index significantly improved the classification accuracy of burned areas with varying grazing intensities, achieving an overall accuracy of 66% and a Kappa accuracy of 63%. The NBRT index, based on near-infrared (NIR), short-wave infrared (SWIR1 and SWIR2), and thermal infrared (Thermal1) bands, effectively distinguished burned semi-arid rangelands with different fire ages and grazing intensities. The high sensitivity of these bands to post-fire vegetation changes contributes to the NBRT index's effectiveness.

Multi-spectral remote sensing data, particularly Landsat-8 imagery, combined with auxiliary data layers, effectively identifies and delineates burned semi-steppe pastures. MLC demonstrated capability despite spectral similarities between regenerated vegetation and surrounding areas. The NBRT index's effectiveness stems from the high sensitivity of its constituent bands (NIR, SWIR1, SWIR2, and Thermal1) to post-fire vegetation changes, enabling accurate identification of burned semi-steppe grasslands.

Visitor behavior is a critical indicator of forest park management and plays a decisive role in ecotourism sustainability and harmony with nature. Many visitor behaviors have negative environmental consequences. One of the most significant destructive behaviors in forest parks is fire creation. Therefore, investigating visitor fire-making behaviors and their effects is essential for forest park planning and protection policies. This study aimed to identify and analyze the behaviors of Alangdareh Forest Park visitors in Gorgan, with a focus on fire-making and large wooden debris consumption.

This applied study employed a survey design. The statistical population comprised tourists who made fires using wooden debris in Alangdareh Forest Park. A sample of 305 individuals was randomly selected. A researcher-developed questionnaire assessed tourist behavior across four dimensions: protection, responsibility, management, and aesthetics related to fire-making, and the reasons for fire-making. These were evaluated using 27 and 9 items, respectively, on a five-point Likert scale (1 = very disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = somewhat agree, 4 = agree, 5 = very agree). Questionnaire items were developed based on forest park documents and 25 expert interviews. Content and face validity were assessed. Convergent validity (AVE) and discriminant validity (DV) were evaluated using the Fornell-Larker criterion. Reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha, homogeneity reliability, and composite reliability (CR). Descriptive statistics were generated using SPSS 26, and structural equation modeling was performed using SmartPLS 3.

The study revealed that 54.1% of tourists had a medium to high desire to make fires in the forest park. While 55.8% demonstrated appropriate protective behaviors regarding fire-making, responsibility, management, and aesthetic behaviors were weak. The R² value from the structural equation model indicated that behavioral dimensions explained 75.1% of fire-making behaviors. All eight hypothesized paths in the model were significant (t > 1.96), indicating a good model fit. The strongest relationship was between protection behavior and fire-making (ρ = 0.010, β = 0.786, t = 2.585), and the weakest was between aesthetic preference and fire-making (ρ = 0.000, β = 0.162, t = 2.585).

Given the destructive impacts of tourist-initiated fires, promoting behavioral change and implementing a management system that aligns with nature can enhance responsible environmental protection behaviors. This study's findings can inform planning and policy-making for forest park managers and stakeholders to prevent, raise awareness, and mitigate the harmful effects of tourists on the natural forest environment.

Wastewater treatment plants generate substantial amounts of sewage sludge, necessitating proper management and disposal strategies. Given its potential to improve soil physico-chemical properties, sewage sludge can be repurposed as an organic fertilizer in poplar plantations, contributing to sustainable agricultural practices. However, due to its high nutrient content, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, concerns arise regarding its potential impact on tree health, including increased susceptibility to pests and diseases. Excess nutrients may alter plant metabolism, making trees either more attractive to herbivorous pests or more resilient to infestations. To evaluate this hypothesis, a field study was conducted to assess the effects of fertilization with sewage sludge from the South Wastewater Treatment Plant of Tehran on pest and disease incidence in two poplar species (Populus nigra 62/154 and Populus alba 45/67).

This study, as part of a broader project on the potential application of sewage sludge in poplar plantations, was conducted using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with two factors: (1) sewage sludge at three levels (0, 10, and 20 kg/m²) and (2) species at two levels (P. nigra 62/154 and P. alba 45/67). The experiment included three blocks, each containing six plots (each 16 m²), representing a combination of sewage sludge treatment and poplar species. In total, the experiment comprised six treatments (3 sewage sludge levels × 2 species) with three replications. Each plot contained nine trees. Over four consecutive growing seasons, all poplar trees were systematically monitored for pest and disease occurrence, and data were recorded in pre-prepared forms.

During the first growing season, no significant pest infestations were observed in either poplar species, and trees subjected to different sewage sludge treatments showed no differences in this regard. In the second growing season, Monosteira unicostata was identified as the primary pest, causing partial leaf fall in the middle of the growing season. The infestation rate in P. alba was nearly twice as high as in P. nigra, though no significant differences were observed among sewage sludge treatments. In the third growing season, Phloeomyzus passerinii and Chaitophorus populeti were the most prevalent pests on P. nigra, whereas Phloeomyzus passerinii and Monosteira unicostata were the dominant pests on P. alba. In the fourth growing season, water stress led to the presence of Melanophila picta on some P. nigra trees and Phloeomyzus passerinii on some P. alba trees. Across all four growing seasons, no significant differences were detected among sewage sludge treatments in terms of pest incidence.

The results of this study indicate that sewage sludge fertilization did not significantly influence the susceptibility of either poplar species to pests and diseases. This finding is crucial for sustainable forestry management, as it suggests that The four-year monitoring period revealed that P. alba exhibited greater resistance to economically significant pests compared to P. nigra. Future studies could further investigate the long-term effects of sewage sludge on soil microbial communities and tree physiological responses to better understand its broader ecological impacts

Shrub plants, acting as living shelters, significantly influence species diversity and the stability of grazed ecosystems. Removing shrubs from rangeland plant communities without protective measures can destabilize rangeland habitats. This study aimed to investigate the protective and sheltering roles of Astragalus heratensis Bunge. and Acanthophyllum glandulosum Bunge ex Boiss. on the stability of Astragalus habitats in the eastern highlands of Iran.

The study was conducted in the Astragalus habitats of Torbat-e-Heydarieh, representing the eastern highlands. Species type and density were measured in 50 plots (2 m²) placed 10 meters apart along five 100-meter transects. Along each transect, 10 plant bases of each species (A. heratensis and A. glandulosum) with crowns intersecting the transect were selected. Height, major and minor diameters, and canopy cover were measured. Within microplots (0.25 m²) placed under the canopy of each shrub, crown cover percentage and species density were recorded. Simultaneously, at a distance of less than 2 meters from each plant base on the opposite side of the transect, a similar microplot (0.25 m²) was established in open areas to measure crown cover and species density. Species diversity indices were calculated for both under-canopy and open areas. Independent samples t-tests were used to compare species diversity between these areas.

Based on the results, Astragalus heratensis Bunge. has a greater protective role for sub-shrub species than Acantholimon glandulosum Bunge ex Boiss., primarily due to its superior height and canopy cover. The percentage of canopy cover, density, and species diversity indices under its crown are higher than those under A. glandulosum. Additionally, the vegetation characteristics and species diversity under the canopy of shrub plants are greater than in the open spaces between them. Most species that exhibit high density under the canopy of A. heratensis and A. glandulosum are rarely observed in open areas. This phenomenon is attributed to the favorable microhabitat conditions that shrub plants create for annual species. No significant difference was observed in the protective and sheltering roles of A. heratensis and A. glandulosum in terms of outdoor biomass production. However, the biomass production of sub-shrubs under A. heratensis was 35% higher than under A. glandulosum.

Shrub plants, functioning as living shelters, protect species under their canopy from direct livestock grazing and create a refuge for palatable species that are sensitive to grazing pressure. Additionally, they provide favorable conditions for the germination, growth, survival, and production of edible species. In general, due to their role in sheltering and supporting annual species, shrub plants play a crucial role in the diversity, conservation, and management of grazed ecosystems. Their protective function can be utilized to enhance and restore rangeland vegetation.

The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar L., is one of the most significant pests of forest and orchard trees, feeding on a wide range of tree and shrub species. Larval feeding on tree leaves is a common occurrence that severely impacts tree growth and productivity. Even if infested trees do not die, they experience significant reductions in growth and yield in subsequent years, leading to irreversible damage. Chemical control poses serious risks, including the destruction of natural enemies, pest resistance, secondary pest outbreaks, and environmental pollution. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of botanical pesticides Neemarin and Matrine, in combination with the microbial pesticide Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki (Btk), for controlling L. dispar larvae.

Egg masses of L. dispar were collected from infested black poplar (Populus nigra L.) trees on the Nazloo campus of Urmia University in 2023 and reared on fresh poplar leaves in a growth chamber. The leaves were replaced daily with fresh ones. The microbial pesticide used was the commercial formulation Belthirul, based on Btk (Problet, Madrid, Spain). Neemarin (Neemarin EC15%) is an Azadirachta indica Juss A. extract containing azadirachtin, manufactured in India and procured from the Iranian Research Institute of Plant Protection. Matrine (brand name: Rui Agro) is a contact and oral insecticide derived from Sophora flavescens Ait., produced in China under the supervision of Ecocert France. Bioassay experiments were conducted to assess the effects of Neemarin, Matrine, and Btk individually and in combination on second and third instar larvae. Additionally, the impact of sublethal concentrations (LC25) of these compounds on pest metamorphosis (larval-to-pupal and pupal-to-adult transformation) was evaluated under laboratory conditions using a germinator (27±2 °C, 65±5% relative humidity). The effectiveness of recommended concentrations was also tested on third instar larvae under field conditions.

Probit analysis of different concentrations of Neemarin (150.00, 267.50, 385.00, 502.50, 620.00 ppm), Matrine (22.50, 38.25, 54.00, 69.75, 85.50 ppm), and Btk (300.00, 712.50, 1125.00, 1537.50, 1950.00 ppm) after 24 and 48 hours showed that Matrine had higher toxicity (lower LC50) than Neemarin and Btk. The combined treatments demonstrated significant differences (P<0.05), with the Neemarin+Matrine+Btk mixture causing the highest larval mortality after 72 hours in both instars. Under field conditions, the highest third instar larval mortality was observed in the Neemarin+Matrine treatment, followed by Matrine+Btk. Evaluating sublethal concentrations of Neemarin (136.94 ppm), Matrine (15.92 ppm), and Btk (302.75 ppm) on larval metamorphosis revealed that Neemarin had the highest inhibitory effect on larval transformation to pupae and pupal development into adults.

Given the limitations and adverse effects of chemical pesticides, the use of biological and botanical alternatives for pest control is essential. The results of this study demonstrated that these biological compounds, both individually and in combination, effectively control L. dispar larvae under laboratory and field conditions. Additionally, sublethal concentrations significantly disrupted the pest’s life cycle. Therefore, these bio-insecticides, particularly in combination, can be recommended as effective alternatives for managing L. dispar larvae and similar pests in forests and orchards.

Severe droughts and catastrophic floods are major challenges resulting from climate change in the Zagros forest ecosystem. Climatic anomalies such as heat waves and prolonged droughts can create favorable conditions for pest and disease outbreaks, leading to the decline of oak forests. The Zagros oak forests are situated in semi-humid and semi-arid climatic zones and, due to their location in the global dry belt, frequently experience recurrent droughts. The biodiversity and ecological role of these forests, acting as a protective belt and natural barrier, highlight their significance. Spanning 11 provinces and covering an area of 6 million hectares—accounting for 40% of Iran’s forests—the management and planning of this ecosystem is highly complex due to its vast extent and the influence of various environmental factors. Identifying areas that experience more frequent, prolonged, and severe droughts can help forest managers mitigate damage and enhance adaptation to current and future climate changes.

To assess drought occurrence in the Zagros ecosystem, the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was utilized to analyze the temporal distribution of drought frequency, duration, and severity over a 28-year period across three selected stations in northern, central, and southern Zagros. Based on regional conditions and classifications from Iran’s National Drought Center, the SPI was categorized into nine classes. The index was calculated for synoptic stations with a 28-year statistical record at 3-, 6-, and 12-month timescales using ClimPACT software. Given the vast study area, the Zagros region was divided into three sections (northern, central, and southern), and drought severity and duration were visualized through graphical representations. After evaluating drought intensity, duration, and frequency across all stations with more than 28 years of data, the percentage of drought-affected areas was calculated for the entire Zagros ecosystem over a common statistical period (1992–2019). The spatial distribution of drought severity during peak drought years was mapped using the ordinary kriging method in ArcGIS software. By identifying years when widespread drought affected the entire Zagros, regions experiencing severe and extreme droughts were classified as critical zones for conservation and research efforts.

The findings indicate no significant difference in drought severity across northern, central, and southern Zagros; however, the timing of the most severe drought events varies. Across all timescales, the longest drought period occurred between 1999 and 2001, coinciding with the onset of forest decline in the Zagros. Notably, from 2007 to 2017, more than 40% of the Zagros region experienced prolonged drought. While droughts can extend over hundreds of kilometers, their intensity and duration are not necessarily uniform across the entire region. Analysis of drought extent from 1992 to 2019 revealed that during certain years, such as 2006 and 2018, no drought events occurred, and the entire Zagros experienced wet conditions. In some years, mild droughts affected less than 10% of the region. However, between 2007 and 2017, more than 40% of the Zagros suffered from prolonged droughts, with certain years, such as 2008, experiencing drought conditions across the entire ecosystem. During this period, in 2010, over 80% of the Zagros region faced drought, and in 2017, this figure exceeded 70%. Notably, before this prolonged dry period, a relatively wet phase lasted for nearly five years.

While multiple factors have contributed to the decline of the Zagros forests, drought has been a primary driver, facilitating the impact of other stressors. The extended duration of droughts has hindered the recovery of trees, while the extreme severity of events—such as the 2008 drought, which affected the entire Zagros—has exacerbated forest decline. Although alternating wet and dry periods are characteristic of the Zagros climate, prolonged drought episodes have heightened ecosystem vulnerability. Severe droughts, when followed by a wet year, tend to have less impact compared to persistent mild droughts. Identifying areas subject to severe and continuous droughts can aid forest managers and policymakers in implementing effective conservation and restoration strategies.

Degradation factors cause disruptions in the natural course of a forest ecosystem, leading to a decline in its capacity and, ultimately, the destruction of forest habitats. By examining and distinguishing these changes, it is possible to predict the current status and future trends of forests and make informed decisions to improve conditions. This study aimed to identify and prioritize the main degradation factors in the Arasbaran forest using the multi-criteria Best-Worst Method (BWM) to determine the significance of each factor. Additionally, the sub-criteria of each factor were identified and ranked in detail.

The study was conducted in the protected forests of the Arasbaran Biosphere Reserve, located in the north of East Azerbaijan Province in northwestern Iran. In this research, degradation factors were categorized into three main criteria: human-caused, managerial-executive, and natural factors. The sub-criteria for each category were identified, selected, and grouped, consisting of nine, nine, and six sub-criteria, respectively. The survey participants included experts and specialists in the field of natural resources. A specialized questionnaire was designed based on the principles of the BWM method. After collecting responses and performing the BWM analysis, the weights of the criteria and sub-criteria, along with the consistency index, were calculated.

The majority of participants (75.43%) had between 10 and 20 years of work experience in natural resources, 38.59% held a master's degree, and 63.40% specialized in forest sciences. The results of prioritizing criteria and sub-criteria indicated that human-caused factors, with a weight of 0.400, played the most significant role in the degradation of the Arasbaran forest. The ranking of sub-criteria revealed that Livestock grazing leads to the destruction of vegetation, hindering the regeneration, and compaction of soil, and animal husbandry (Wagg= 0.119) was the primary contributor to human-caused destruction in the study area. The ranking of the managerial and executive factor sub-criteria indicated that the Lack of collaborative management and protection (Wagg= 0.130) was ranked first. The ranking of natural sub-criteria revealed that pest infestations and plant diseases (Wagg= 0.230) was effective natural factor.

Comparing the findings of this study with the current situation in the study area demonstrated that the BWM analysis method provided reliable and acceptable results. The prioritization of forest degradation factors will assist planners and policymakers in designing and implementing targeted strategies to mitigate or adjust these destructive elements. Additionally, forest managers will be able to identify key challenges and adopt suitable conservation measures to improve or modify forest management plans. It is recommended that further research be conducted to identify and prioritize the most effective solutions for preventing or addressing these degradation factors and their sub-criteria. By obtaining expert recommendations, the findings can be made accessible to decision-makers to facilitate effective actions for protecting this vital ecosystem. Moreover, any solution for preventing degradation should comprehensively address human, managerial-executive, and natural aspects to ensure the ecosystem’s recovery by minimizing these destructive factors. Furthermore, exploring the potential of remote sensing technologies and artificial intelligence-based analyses for developing a deforestation monitoring approach, particularly concerning natural factors, is suggested.

Euphrates poplar (Populus euphratica) is a fast-growing species in the family Salicaceae, naturally occurring in many regions of Iran and valued for wood production. Egeirotrioza ceardi (Hemiptera: Triozidae) is a major pest of P. euphratica in both natural and cultivated habitats, including Tehran province. This pest induces dense gall formations on leaves, disrupting photosynthesis, causing yellowing, and leading to premature leaf drop. This study investigated the biology and natural control factors of E. ceardi on Euphrates poplar trees in the National Botanical Garden of Iran during 2018 and 2019, with the aim of understanding its life cycle and evaluating the role of effective factors in controlling the pest population.

Field and laboratory investigations were conducted to monitor pest population dynamics, nymphal damage, and natural enemies on 10–12 trees at intervals of 7–15 days.Adult sampling involved shaking 20 branches (50 cm in length) from four cardinal directions of each tree into Schneider traps, along with the random collection of 20 additional branches (30 cm in length). In the laboratory, 80 leaves and 20 twig tips per tree were randomly selected and examined under a binocular microscope to record eggs, nymphs, galls, and parasitized nymphs. Specimens were either reared or preserved in 75%–80% ethanol. Additionally, to study the pest’s developmental stages under controlled conditions, 100 pairs of adults were released onto enclosed seedling twigs in the field.

In the National Botanical Garden of Iran, E. ceardi adults appeared on P. euphratica trees from early March to late April, with slight variations between years due to weather conditions. Adults began feeding on newly emerged leaf buds from mid or late March, and females laid eggs on twigs, lateral buds, and both sides of young leaves. The average number o eggs per female was 75.03 ± 13.47 in 2018 and 63.71 ± 12.04 in 2019, with oviposition periods of 10.30 ± 1.98 days and 7.24 ± 1.58 days, respectively. Eggs hatched from late March or early April, with incubation periods of 10.38 ± 3.42 days in 2018 and 13.87 ± 4.23 days in 2019. The insect undergoes five nymphal instars. Nymphs, which feed on leaf sap, develop within galls on both leaf surfaces from late March or early April to mid November. Egeirotrioza ceardi overwinters as fifth-instar nymphs inside galls on dried leaves and completes one generation per year. The sexratio (male: female) was 1:1.44 in 2018 and 1:1.92 in 2019. More than ten predatory arthropod species were observed feeding on various life stages of E. ceardi. Additionally, birds andIranian Journal of Forest and Range Protection Research Vol. 22 No. (2), 2025 334 parasitoid wasps, particularly Psyllophagus spp. (Encyrtidae), were identified as natural enemies of the nymphs.

While climatic factors, particularly cold temperatures and heavy rainfall from late February to mid-April, played a major role in regulating E. ceardi populations, natural enemies had a limited impact on its control. In Tehran province, chemical control targeting adults, eggs, and first-instar nymphs before gall formation (mid March to late April) is recommended. Mechanical control, involving the collection and destruction of dried leaves from late autumn to late February, is also suggested as an effective management strategy.

Boxwood is a valuable and unique species of the Hyrcanian forests that has been exposed to various pests for several years. About 72,000 hectares of forest areas in the north of the country are occupied by boxwood habitats. Currently, the boxwood blight disease and the box tree moth pest (Cydalima perspectalis) have infected these habitats. In recent years, extensive research has been conducted on the applications of remote sensing in monitoring forest pests, especially by using two physiological characteristics of leaf loss and color change. The purpose of this study is to comprehensively examine the time series satellite images available in the boxwood stands of Rezvanshahr city to derive vegetation indicators and investigate the trend of long-term changes in the vegetation.

The study area is the Shemshad forests, with an area of 400 hectares in Rezvanshahr city, in Guilan province. Since boxwood is an evergreen species and is located in the deciduous Hyrcanian forests, only the months from September to December with no canopy and snowfall were used for image analysis in this study.In this research, Landsat satellite images from 2010 (the time of the outbreak) to 2016, and Sentinel-2 satellite images from 2017 to 2019 were used. After obtaining satellite images, radiometric and atmospheric corrections were performed on the Landsat images using ENVI software. For the Sentinel-2 images, since they already include atmospheric corrections at the L2A level, there was no need for further correction. To convert the spatial resolution of satellite images from 30 meters to 15 meters, image integration and pansharpening methods were applied. After the necessary corrections, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was extracted for Landsat and Sentinel-2 images using ENVI and SNAP software, respectively.To verify the accuracy of the data obtained from satellite images, random sampling was carried out at several points, based on the pixel dimensions of the Sentinel-2 image, which is ten meters by ten meters, in three zones: contaminated, healthy, and completely dry areas for vegetation index control. Using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Mann-Kendall (MK) regression methods, the long-term trend of vegetation index changes was calculated.

Based on the indices extracted from the satellite images, the average index was calculated during the period from 2010 to 2019. Additionally, the minimum, maximum, average, and standard deviation values for 10 satellite images were examined and calculated. Based on the average vegetation index, the year 2017 had the highest density of boxwood vegetation (with an average of 0.63) and the least drying, while the year 2011 had the highest level of boxwood dieback (with an average of 0.08) in the forests of Rezvanshahr. According to the results, out of the total study area of 400 hectares, 269 hectares showed a 67% increase in vegetation index from 2010 to 2019. Meanwhile, a decrease of 18% was observed in 72 hectares of vegetated areas. In the present study, only 59 hectares (15%) maintained a constant growth trend during these years. The result of long-term trend analysis using OLS and the Mann-Kendall method in most of the forest areas of boxwood trees shows a positive slope (green spectrum), though very small, indicating a greening trend. The low slope values indicate the absence of a clear trend in vegetation changes, and their positive values confirm a very slight increase in NDVI, which suggests the occurrence of very weak greenness and predominant drying. The results of the long-term trend analysis using OLS and the Mann-Kendall method indicate a low slope in the trend of greenness.

Based on the obtained results, only 15% of the vegetation covered with boxwood exhibited a constant trend of change. Through analyses using the Mann-Kendall method and Ordinary Least Squares, and by extracting the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, we identified a very limited greening trend in boxwood forests. We also found that NDVI is the most effective index for detecting and predicting vegetation changes under pest pressure. It is also suggested that other satellite image sources be used to monitor the trend of dieback changes.

The phenomenon of dust storms has become a global environmental challenge. As a natural disaster, it has significantly affected Khuzestan province due to its geographical location and proximity to vast desert areas. This study aims to examine land management strategies to mitigate dust production in the southeastern dust source of Ahvaz by implementing effective land management techniques to control wind erosion in this region.

To conduct this research, ecological land resources—including climate, geology, soil properties, land use, vegetation cover, wind erosion, and agricultural and livestock conditions were analyzed using satellite imagery and extensive field surveys. By overlaying maps, the dust source area was classified into ecologically homogeneous units (work units). Based on the physical and chemical properties of the soil, the vegetative potential for biological stabilization was determined according to the ecological requirements of native plant species. Soil samples were collected from 106 points at three depths, and soil erodibility was assessed using a wind tunnel. A wind erosion sensitivity map was then generated to prioritize the stabilization of work units. The characteristics of erosive winds were analyzed using hourly wind speed and direction data from 21 meteorological stations. After creating a database of ecological resources in a GIS environment, the vegetative potential of the work units was evaluated using soil properties. Subsequently, specific stabilization projects were proposed for each work unit.

The findings of this study indicate that the stabilization strategy was planned systematically, considering the ecosystem type, and dust control projects were designed based on land use classifications. The land use distribution of the dust source area includes 37% rangelands, 10% bare lands, 11% dried wetlands, 24% rainfed agriculture, and 13% irrigated agriculture. The proposed projects included biological measures such as shrub planting, afforestation, roadside tree planting, and living windbreaks along farm edges, as well as management strategies such as soil moistening, leaching, irrigation, grazing control, construction of non-living windbreaks, and rainwater harvesting techniques. Analysis of the energy trend of erosive winds over the past decade revealed no significant changes. Instead, the activation of dust sources was attributed to land use changes, precipitation patterns, and drought occurrences.

The lack of water allocation to downstream ecosystems, combined with the construction of large dams and multiple watershed management structures in upstream areas, has led to the transformation of wetlands and sedimentary plains into major dust sources and has contributed to surface soil salinization. Restoring flood capacity in these areas was achieved through the construction of water supply channels to meet the water demands of biological stabilization projects and facilitate the moistening of wind erosion-sensitive units. Overall, the implementation of these projects demonstrated that this ecosystem restoration-based approach, with a focus on wind erosion-prone lands, can serve as an effective model for stabilizing the country’s dust source areas.

Program laws, as documents that define goals, strategies, policies, and programs based on the ideals, capabilities, resources, and environmental conditions of a country, are considered the most important development framework. Therefore, incorporating forest and rangeland conservation into these laws can play a significant role in sustainable development. The development program laws of the Islamic Republic of Iran include multiple provisions related to forest conservation. This study aims to review, analyze, extract, and categorize these provisions in the country’s development program laws.

This research employs a descriptive-analytical approach to examine the position of forest and rangeland protection within the development program laws of Iran before and after the Islamic Revolution. The methodological framework of this study is based on both legal dogmatism (describing the existing legal system) and a systemic approach (evaluating the adequacy, effectiveness, and functionality of current regulations). While field research plays a minor role in this study, a key focus is the assessment of legal provisions in development laws relevant to the forest sector. The study also includes an evaluation, critique, and comparative analysis of these provisions. The legal dogmatism approach in legal methodology aims to analyze and describe the existing legal system based on laws, regulations, and governing documents, a process referred to as “legal art.”

The analysis of development program laws from pre-revolutionary times to the present reveals five key themes related to forests and rangelands: conservation, restoration, rehabilitation, development, and sustainable utilization. Additional key issues addressed in these programs include increasing forest and rangeland protection efficiency, balancing livestock grazing with rangeland capacity, organizing local communities that utilize these resources, implementing comprehensive wildfire prevention and control plans, and banning commercial logging from national forests. By comparing the provisions in pre- and post-revolution development programs, the study finds that conservation, restoration, rehabilitation, development, and sustainable use have been consistently addressed across all development programs. Each program has introduced relevant solutions for these objectives. Enhancing forest and rangeland protection has been explicitly emphasized in the fourth and sixth development plans. Additionally, balancing livestock with rangeland capacity and structuring the exploiting communities are priorities reflected in the third, fourth, and sixth development programs. According to these plans, the government is responsible for regulating rangeland grazing and ensuring that rangeland management plans are implemented through indigenous and tribal communities. Moreover, the Sixth Development Plan introduces key policies for disaster preparedness, particularly regarding forest fires, including investments in firefighting equipment and strengthening forest protection units. Notably, this plan is the only one that explicitly addresses rangeland habitat restoration, the expansion and processing of medicinal plants, and the complete prohibition of timber extraction from national forests.

The findings of this study demonstrate that the provisions related to forest and rangeland protection in development program laws reflect a progressive legal evolution aimed at enhancing conservation efforts. By systematically incorporating protective regulations into these programs, Iran’s legal framework has taken a structured and evolving approach toward preserving forests and rangelands.

Ducrosia anethifolia (commonly known as ‘Moshgak’) is a medicinal plant belonging to the family Apiaceae. It is distributed in the southern regions of Iran, particularly in Fars province. This plant is traditionally used for both culinary and medicinal purposes. Its essential oil has shown significant insecticidal activity against certain date palm pests. Additionally, it possesses antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and memory-enhancing properties. To date, no reports have documented insect pest activity or damage on this plant. However, during a study in the southern regions of Fars province, extensive larval activity of an insect species was observed on D. anethifolia. This report aims to identify the insect species and examine its biological characteristics.

Field studies were conducted in March and April 2021, and continued in the following years, in the natural habitats of D. anethifolia in the Khor region (335 km southeast of Shiraz, Fars province). Larvae were observed feeding extensively on the young leaves, stem tips, and flower buds of the plant. These larvae were collected at different developmental stages and reared in the laboratory until they reached adulthood. The adult insects were then identified.

The adult insect was identified as Papilio machaon Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae). The larvae belonged to the first generation, which became active in Larestan from March onwards. No signs of a second generation were observed during the region’s hot summer. In spring, when the first generation was active, 30–40% of the plants were infested, particularly in the early morning or evening. It is important to note that this plant is naturally distributed in a sparse pattern. The insect was consistently observed on D. anethifolia over multiple years. In certain remote areas where perennial plants with thick roots were present, larval infestations were more frequent. Papilio machaon is widely distributed across North America, Europe, North Africa, and most of Asia. In Iran, it has been reported from nearly all regions, including Fars province (Shiraz and Kazerun). This butterfly can be found from sea level to altitudes above 3,600 meters. Its host plants belong to the families Apiaceae and Rutaceae. The larvae employ camouflage as a defense mechanism: young larvae resemble bird droppings, while older larvae exhibit coloration similar to their host plants. Some subspecies of P. machaon are unpalatable to birds, serving as an additional defensive strategy. The adults feed on nectar. Certain wasp species have been reported as parasitoids of this butterfly, suggesting that future studies should investigate the presence of natural enemies in the region.

The D. anethifolia population in Larestan, Fars province, faces threats due to overharvesting and climate change. Local communities harvest this plant during its vegetative growth phase, preventing many individuals from reaching the flowering stage. In nature, the plant primarily propagates through seeds. Given that P. machaon larvae feed on the immature and unopened flower buds, this insect may negatively impact the reproductive success of D. anethifolia by reducing seed production, ultimately threatening the plant’s natural regeneration and survival.