نشریه مطالعات آموزش و یادگیری
سال شانزدهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 87، پاییز و زمستان 1403)

Working memory is responsible for processing and temporarily storing information, functioning as a complex cognitive system for storing and processing information simultaneously. This system consists of various components including the central executive component, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad. An individual's processing efficiency within this system depends on the functioning of these different components. Processing efficiency is defined by the effort made or the resources used to complete a task, and is typically measured based on the mental effort exerted or the time spent. In arithmetic, addition and subtraction are the first operations taught. Addition and subtraction problems are typically divided into two main types based on how they are expressed: symbolic problems and word problems. Word problems use word statements (text-based) to represent situations involving addition or subtraction operation. This study focuses on simple pictorial arithmetic word problems of the change type (involving increase and decrease) with dynamic variations. According to Sweller's cognitive load theory, presenting information in different modalities (such as visual, auditory, or combination) can help reduce cognitive load. As a result, according to Cognitive Load Theory, by presenting visual and auditory systems together (due to the simultaneous use of word and visual memory capacities) greater cognitive load can be processed (leading to a reduction in cognitive load).

The current study has sought to investigate the effect of different presentation methods of simple arithmetic word problems on students' processing efficiency and to compare varied effects of these methods on processing efficiency of academically weak and strong students. The research is applied in terms of purpose, and experimental (factorial design with 1 group factor and 1 presentation method) in terms of design, in which the effect of group factor (academically weak and strong students) and presentation methods of simple arithmetic word problems (pictorial, auditory and combination) on the dependent variable (processing efficiency of the studied students) is examined. The statistical population of the study comprises all the first-grade elementary school students of Yasouj in 1402-1403 (4049 students).  Through volunteer sampling, 58 students were selected as the participants of the research (29 students in each group). To select participants, students of six elementary schools (3 girls' schools and 3 boys' schools) in Yasouj were chosen as available participants. 523 students volunteered to participate in the study, out of which 58 students were selected after a screening test for identifying strong and weak students in simple arithmetic problems. Notably, students who answered 75% or more of the questions of arithmetic speed test were considered strong (20 girls and 9 boys), while those who answered 25% or fewer questions were classified as weak (14 girls and 15 boys) and participated in the study. The instrument used in the study was adapted from math problems of the first-grade math book. 24 problems were given to each participant: 8 problems in each presentation method (visual, auditory and combination) with half focusing on subtraction and the other half on addition. In order to assess processing efficiency which is defined as the time spent on answering a problem in working memory, simple arithmetic problems were used considering the time spent on answering each test individually. The time each student spent on each test was measured separately using a stopwatch. The score obtained by each student divided by the time spent on each test individually represents the student's efficiency score.    Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance as well as Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) were utilized to analyze the data.

The results revealed that the processing efficiency of both weak and strong students in increasing problems is higher than in decreasing problems in every presentation method. In addition, the processing efficiency of both weak and strong students in combination presentation is higher than in pictorial presentation, and in pictorial presentation is higher than in auditory presentation. It is interesting to note that the same is true for the weak students. The results also indicated that there is a significant difference between the weak and strong students in terms of increasing and decreasing auditory problems, increasing and decreasing pictorial problems, and increasing and decreasing combination problems. Furthermore, the strong students showed higher processing efficiency compared to the weaker students in various problems with different presentations, and this progress is more noticeable in the strong students.

According to the results of this study, mathematics teachers and instructors can facilitate students' learning process by using different methods of presenting simple arithmetic problems in their teaching. Moreover, these evaluations could have significant implications for the mathematical development of children (especially for those who struggle with math) in the future. Additionally, addressing foundational issues in subtraction problems can prevent the escalation of these difficulties and evolving into more complex challenges.

Academic performance is a crucial indicator for assessing the progress of the education system in any society (Al-Rahmi et al., 2015). Researchers have noted that academic performance is consistently influenced by a variety of individual and environmental factors, which educational administrators must identify to achieve beneficial outcomes. The perception of the learning environment is considered one of the most significant factors affecting academic performance (Lu et al., 2022). Previous studies have emphasized the impact of learners' perceptions of the learning environment, particularly constructivist environments, on learning outcomes (Cansiz & Cansiz, 2019; Wu et al., 2022).Self-directed learning is another factor influencing academic performance. It is a process in which individuals independently identify and select their learning needs and take responsibility for their own learning (Clair, 2022). Additionally, academic engagement, along with environmental factors and other individual variables, can influence students' academic performance (Sowers et al., 2016; Sukman & Click, 2019; Azma et al., 2022). Academic engagement is defined as the degree of continuous student participation in academic activities, involvement in school-related programs, and commitment to educational and learning goals (Tao, 2021).In light of these considerations, the current study seeks to answer whether an individual's perception of the constructivist environment, mediated by self-directed learning and academic engagement within a causal model, plays an effective role in explaining students’ academic performance.

The present study employed a descriptive-correlational method, examining the relationships between perception of constructivist environment, academic engagement, self-directed learning, and academic performance using structural equation modeling. The research population comprised 6,542 male and female second-level secondary students in Qom city during the 2022-2023 academic year. Based on Klein's recommendation, 408 participants were initially considered. To enhance sampling accuracy and account for potential data distortion, 450 students were selected using multi-stage cluster random sampling. Two high schools (one boys' and one girls') were randomly selected from each of Qom's four educational districts. From each high school, three twelfth-grade classes (humanities, experimental sciences, and mathematics) were randomly chosen. Selected students completed the questionnaires. Research instruments included questionnaires on academic performance (Dortaj, 2013), perception of constructivist environment (Taylor, Dawson & Fraser, 1995), self-directed learning (Fisher et al., 2001), and academic engagement (Rio, 2013). Students were allotted one hour to complete the questionnaires. Inclusion criteria were teacher and student consent, while incomplete questionnaires were excluded. After discarding 23 incomplete responses, 427 questionnaires were analyzed.

Demographic characteristics indicated that out of 427 participants in the study, 209 were boys (49%) and 218 were girls (51%). Before conducting the path analysis, the assumptions related to this method such as the normality of the multivariate distribution, the presence of outliers in the multivariate data, the existence of a linear relationship, and the absence of multicollinearity among the predictor variables were examined. After making the necessary corrections, the model fit indices demonstrated that the model had a good fit. As shown in Table 1, all direct coefficients for the perception of constructivist environment on academic performance (β=0.34, t=2.89), self-directed learning (β=0.45, t=4.66), and academic engagement (β=0.59, t=4.15) were positive and significant at the 0.001 level. Additionally, the direct coefficients for self-directed learning on academic performance (β=0.33, t=3.19) and for academic engagement on academic performance (β=0.23, t=5.06) were also positive and significant at the 0.001 level. Furthermore, the indirect coefficients for the perception of constructivist environment on academic performance through the mediating roles of academic engagement (β=0.13) and self-directed learning (β=0.15) were confirmed using the bootstrap test.

 The findings of this study indicate a positive and significant relationship between the perception of a constructivist environment, self-directed learning, academic engagement, and academic performance. Additionally, the results revealed a positive and significant relationship between perceptions of the constructivist environment, self-directed learning, and academic engagement. The path analysis further confirmed the mediating roles of self-directed learning and academic engagement in the relationship between the perception of a constructivist environment and academic performance. These results are consistent with the research findings of Limno et al. (2022) and Bizmana (2022). It can be argued that in a constructivist learning environment, learners are actively involved in constructing knowledge through participation in learning activities, fostering a close relationship between what they have learned and the changing world. The constructivist learning environment primarily provides a stimulating atmosphere in which learners perceive their role in the learning process as effective and feel confident in their cognitive abilities. This belief enhances their motivation to engage with assignments. In such an environment, learners employ more effective strategies for learning, which subsequently improves their academic performance. In classrooms based on the constructivist approach, learning is a collaborative endeavor that occurs through community research, leading to increased student involvement in learning activities and, consequently, better academic performance. In learning environments grounded in constructivist principles, all educational activities are tailored to meet learners' needs. Therefore, such an approach can stimulate intrinsic motivation among learners and contribute to improved academic performance.

Spatial thinking is a cognitive process that integrates concepts of space, representation tools, and reasoning processes. It serves as the foundation for spatial reasoning, which is defined as the ability to mentally manipulate objects and understand their relationships. To effectively utilize spatial reasoning, individuals must acquire and employ a set of related skills. Proficiency in spatial abilities significantly influences an individual's potential for academic achievement, particularly in Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics (STEM) fields. Since understanding many STEM concepts involves comprehending and manipulating objects in space, STEM education necessitates a strong foundation in spatial reasoning skills.One way to strengthen the connection between spatial cognition and STEM learning is through the spatialization of the curriculum. This approach involves designing new curricular materials and providing teacher training to enhance the spatial aspects of content, methods, and delivery. To achieve this, educators need to develop competencies related to spatial reasoning. Teachers must acquire skills that enable them to design and teach scientific concepts using spatial reasoning, allowing them to present scientific ideas in a more understandable and accessible manner to a diverse range of students with varying interests and abilities. Consequently, students can apply these skills to solve scientific problems and address real-world challenges.Given the importance of spatial thinking and reasoning in formal education, along with the current lack of emphasis on their explicit teaching, this study aims to identify the professional competencies required of teachers to deliver instruction based on spatial reasoning. The goal is to support the professional development of educators and promote the development of spatial thinking and reasoning skills among students.

Given the research objective of "identifying the professional competencies required of teachers for spatial reasoning-based instruction," a meta-synthesis approach was used to discover the desired competencies in this area. To this end, the seven-step meta-synthesis process of Sandelowski and Barroso (2007) was followed:Step 1: Formulating the research question The primary research question was: What are the components of the professional competencies required of teachers in spatial reasoning-based instruction?Step 2: Systematic literature searchStep 3: Screening and selecting suitable qualitative studies:  635 sources were found using the indicated keywords. Each source was carefully reviewed by researchers, 170 sources with less relevance to the research question were eliminated after reviewing the titles. Additionally,, after reviewing the abstracts, 182 sources were discarded, leaving 283 sources.Step 4: Critically appraising studies and extracting data: In this step, the methodological quality of the studies was examined, and the CASP[1] tool, was used. As a result, 25 sources were eliminated due to receiving poor or very poor scores from the review process, and of the remaining 258 sources, 40 sources received a moderate score and 218 sources received a good or very good score.Step 5: Analyzing and transforming the findings of qualitative studies: In this step, the 258 selected and finalized sources were reviewed multiple times to identify the separate intra-content findings that the original studies had found, and themes were extracted. To identify themes, the main research question was used as a criterion, and a total of 19 basic themes were extracted.Step 6: Validating the findings Optimization methods for the validity of the findings of this meta-synthesis were considered in four descriptive, interpretive, theoretical, and pragmatic stages.Step 7: Presenting the findings Data analysis was conducted using thematic analysis. All factors extracted from the research were considered as themes. These themes were categorized based on concepts related to the concept of competency in spatial reasoning-based instruction into 19 basic themes, 3 organizing themes, and 1 overarching theme. The basic concepts were placed under 3 organizing themes: knowledge, skills, and attitudes required for teaching using spatial reasoning. The "knowledge" competency included 10 basic themes such as familiarity with terminology related to spatial reasoning, knowledge of the dimensions and components of spatial reasoning, awareness of the history of spatial reasoning, knowledge of the typology of spatial reasoning, understanding the processes and variables affecting spatial reasoning, awareness of basic psychological theories and cognitive processes, familiarity with research on visual-spatial abilities, and more. Additionally, the "skills" competency included 5 themes: visual-spatial skills, spatial reasoning ability, spatial reasoning skills in science, the ability to apply different approaches to teaching with spatial reasoning, and spatial reasoning assessment skills. Finally, the "attitude" competency encompassed 4 themes, including a tendency towards critical spatial reasoning, interest in consciously practicing spatial thinking, a positive attitude and beliefs towards using spatial reasoning in teaching, and a positive attitude towards spatial reasoning-based curricula. All these themes were placed under the overarching theme of "competencies for teaching using spatial reasoning."

The overall objective of this study was to investigate the competencies required of teachers for spatial reasoning-based instruction. The results showed that these competencies can be categorized into 19 basic themes, 3 organizing themes, and one overarching theme. Teachers or instructors who intend to use spatial reasoning in their teaching need to acquire and develop knowledge, skills, and attitudes in this area. These findings can be used as a basis for developing training programs and improving the quality of teaching in the field of spatial reasoning. This study provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the competencies required for teachers to effectively integrate spatial reasoning into their instruction.

In many motivational theories, including Clifford's theory from 1988, academic risk-taking plays a crucial role. It is characterized by students' inclination to prefer difficult questions over easy ones, even in the face of potential failure, and it reveals how students can respond to this potential failure. Encouraging students to take risks in an educational environment enhances learning, increases motivation and academic effort, boosts self-esteem, improves the ability to embrace challenges, and fosters a sense of competence.Thus, academic risk-taking can cultivate students with high self-esteem, adaptability, and resilience who strive more than others for success, growth, and personal flourishing. Numerous studies have shown that various individual and environmental factors can influence academic risk-taking. One significant individual and intrinsic factor is the satisfaction of basic psychological needs. According to Deci and Ryan's self-determination theory, these needs include the need for autonomy, competence, relatedness, and novelty. Satisfying these needs allows individuals to feel valued and well-being, enabling them to make decisions about their quality of life and learning independently of external influences.Given that the relationship between satisfying basic psychological needs and academic risk-taking is not linear or one-dimensional, another influential factor in academic risk-taking behavior is autonomous learning, which involves a conscious effort to learn and accept responsibility for one's learning. Therefore, examining the mediating role of autonomous learning provides valuable insights into the dynamics of the relationship between satisfying basic psychological needs and academic risk-taking. Our aim is to achieve a deeper understanding of the processes through which the fulfillment of these basic psychological needs, facilitated by autonomous learning, leads to the emergence of risk-taking learners.

This study is correlational, examining causal relationships among research variables through structural equation modeling. The statistical population includes all male and female students in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades in Marvdasht (Fars Province) during the 2022-2023 academic year. Following Klein's (2016) criterion of selecting a minimum of 10 to 20 participants per model parameter, three girls' and three boys' schools were randomly chosen from the Marvdasht educational system. From each school, three classes from each grade were randomly selected, and all students completed the research questionnaires. After excluding seven incomplete questionnaires, analysis was conducted on the remaining 413 responses, consisting of 193 girl participants (47%) and 220 boy participants (53%). Inclusion criteria included informed consent and an age range of 11 to 14 years (grades six to eight), while exclusion criteria were non-cooperation and incomplete questionnaires. Ethical considerations involved informing participants of the research purpose, ensuring their freedom to participate or withdraw, and guaranteeing the confidentiality of their information.

The research model demonstrated a good fit with the collected data. The results indicated that students' academic risk-taking is significantly influenced by the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, particularly the need for relatedness. As satisfaction of this need increases among students, their academic risk-taking also rises. Another finding revealed that the satisfaction of the needs for autonomy and relatedness has an indirect effect on students' academic risk-taking through autonomous learning.Therefore, based on the findings of this study, it can be concluded that higher quality and greater satisfaction of basic psychological needs, including the need for autonomy and relatedness, enhances students' autonomous learning, which in turn increases their academic risk-taking. This process contributes to the overall well-being and success of learners.

The aim of this study was to examine the mediating role of autonomous learning in the relationship between basic psychological needs satisfaction in the classroom and academic risk-taking.The findings showed that among the four dimensions of basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness, novelty), only the dimension of the need for relatedness positively and significantly predicted students' academic risk-taking. Based on Bowlby’s attachment theory (1988), this finding can be explained by saying that an individual’s general perception of having a secure and satisfying base leads to a greater tendency to explore the environment, as well as the perception that opportunities for exploration are both available and worth the effort and risk. Therefore, an important outcome of having a secure base along with a strong network of connections is higher self-esteem, a belief in one’s abilities, confidence, increased exploratory behaviors and goal-setting, enhanced learning, exploration, happiness, and ultimately risk-taking. Thus, it can be said that the tendency to accept general risks, which is a prerequisite for academic risk-taking, is somewhat related to having a perception of a secure and satisfying base for meeting basic needs. Another finding of this research showed that among the four dimensions of basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness, novelty), the dimensions of the need for relatedness and autonomy positively and significantly predicted students' autonomous learning. In explaining this finding, it can be said that the positive and significant relationship between the need for relatedness and autonomy (dimensions of basic psychological needs) with autonomous learning stems from the fact that autonomous learning arises from the feeling of autonomy while performing tasks and activities. Therefore, when students feel autonomy or independence along with a strong supportive network, they exhibit the highest levels of intrinsic motivation and autonomous learning.The next finding showed that there is a positive and significant relationship between autonomous learning and academic risk-taking. This finding can be explained by saying that strengthening and improving independent and autonomous learning methods leads to increased academic activities and the active role of the learner in their learning process, as well as creating and reinforcing risk-taking habits in students' academic domains.The final finding showed that among the basic psychological needs, only the two dimensions of the need for autonomy and the need for relatedness had a positive and significant relationship with academic risk-taking through the mediating role of autonomous learning. In explaining the indirect effect of the need for autonomy and relatedness on academic risk-taking through the mediation of autonomous learning, it can be said that according to self-determination theory, the experience of autonomy and self-direction is associated with higher academic achievements, the freedom to start and continue tasks and behaviors, learning styles, and self-regulation (autonomous learning), which in turn can be a successful predictor of students' academic risk-taking.It should be noted that the present research is correlational in nature, so caution must be exercised in making causal inferences from the results. It is suggested that since the questioner used in this research was standardized and implemented in Iran for the first time, using questionnaires designed based on the cultural and educational conditions of our country may yield more accurate results. Also, considering that this research was conducted on students in public schools, it is recommended that in future studies, gifted students be compared with regular students in terms of autonomous learning strategies and academic risk-taking.

Emotional and social skills are of particular importance for teachers, to the extent that they can be said to influence their other capabilities as well. If a teacher is unable to control and manage their negative emotions or establish positive and constructive interactions with their students, their professional or technical capabilities may become less relevant. Psychologists and educational specialists posit that motivational and emotional skills are among the primary factors influencing psychological abilities. They assert that teachers with higher levels of emotional regulation and motivation demonstrate significantly greater success in student interactions.Therefore, the aim of the present study was to represent teachers' perceptions and lived experiences regarding factors affecting their emotional and social competences in 2022-2023 academic year. This study employed a qualitative approach using a descriptive-phenomenological method.Research Question: The main research question of this study is: Based on the perceptions and lived experiences of teachers, what factors influence their emotional and social skills?

The current study is a qualitative investigation conducted to understand and identify factors affecting emotional and social skills from teachers' perspectives in the 2022-2023 academic year. The research population comprised all first-year high school teachers in Yazd city, from which 24 teachers (16 women & 8 men) were selected using purposeful sampling and interviewed. Participation criteria included sufficient knowledge and familiarity with the study subject. Four preliminary interviews were conducted to refine the questions before the main interviewing process. Researchers conducted interviews in school offices, lasting 40 to 60 minutes per teacher. Data collection employed semi-structured interviews, chosen for their flexibility and depth of information. Given the study's aim to understand teachers' lived experiences regarding factors affecting their emotional and social competences, a phenomenological method was adopted.

The text of each interview was analyzed word by word, line by line, and sentence by sentence to generate codes. Initially, approximately 55 codes were extracted. In the subsequent step, similar codes were grouped together, resulting in ten themes. The final analysis of the conducted interviews yielded 10 themes and 32 sub-themes. From the analysis of the obtained data, ten main themes were extracted: emotional intelligence, job attitude, psychological capital, school principal's qualifications, family conditions, educational policy process, issues within the educational organization, perception of injustice, individual-related limitations, and learner-related limitations. Sub-themes were categorized under each of these main themes.

Overall, the results of the present study indicate that participants recognize various factors affecting teachers' emotional and social competencies. This suggests that each teacher faces multiple and distinct challenges in their educational and professional activities. Neglecting to address these challenges can negatively impact their emotional and social competencies and, in the near future, pose significant risks to the educational system and, consequently, to the dynamism and development of society. According to teachers' perspectives, creating the necessary conditions to meet their psychological and social needs plays a crucial role in sustaining the vitality of their academic lives. These changes enhance clarity while retaining the original meaning.

Effective teaching is fundamental to a successful educational system, as the quality of an education system can never exceed the quality of its teachers. For this reason, educational systems must allocate substantial resources to cultivate a highly skilled teaching workforce (Minea et al., 2021). Traditionally, increasing teachers' specialized knowledge has been approached through external professional development programs (Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009). However, only a small portion of this externally gained expertise tends to transfer into everyday classroom practices (Veelen et al., 2017). As a result, traditional professional development approaches have shown limited effectiveness, prompting teachers to seek more self-directed opportunities to take ownership of their development (Nabhani & Bahous, 2010; Alhashmi & Moussa-Inaty, 2021). This shift underscores the importance of focusing on the contextual and school-based foundations of professional learning for teachers (Opfer & Pedder, 2011; Akiba, 2015), framing schools as critical learning environments not only for students but also for teachers (Hallinger et al., 2019). School leaders play a crucial role in advancing professional learning for both teachers and students by shaping school capacities through a supportive culture and engaged staff, ultimately leading to school-wide improvement (Li et al., 2016a; Hoy & Miskel, 2018). In Iran, key educational policy documents, such as Fundamental Reform Document of Education (FRDE) in the Islamic Republic of Iran (Supreme Council of the Cultural Revolution, 2019), underscore the need to establish environments that facilitate the acquisition of professional knowledge and skills, as well as the development of teachers’ professional identities within educational settings. Research has also revealed significant criticisms of external, off-site professional learning programs and their limited impact on improving teacher quality (Darling-Hammond & Richardson, 2009; Ghaleei & Mohajeran, 2015; Orangi et al., 2011). In response, there is a growing emphasis on school-based professional learning and collaborative support among teachers (Cooper et al., 2020; Nabhani & Bahous, 2010; Alhashmi & Moussa-Inaty, 2021; Mortazi- Mehrbani & Gooya, 2014; Johnston & George, 2018; Netolicky, 2016; Veelen et al., 2017). Although Iran’s centralized educational structure and the restricted authority granted to school leaders pose challenges, recent studies suggest that schools in Iran possess untapped capacities that can directly and indirectly enhance teachers' professional learning. In elementary schools, for instance, teachers play a facilitative role in educating students across diverse subjects, necessitating expertise in foundational standards for core subjects (Porcell, 2020). This study draws on Horváth and colleague's (2015) diagnostic framework and builds upon Sleegers and colleague's (2013) multidimensional, multilevel professional learning community model, which explores learning capacities at the individual, interpersonal, organizational, and network levels. By documenting teachers' lived experiences, this study aims to more deeply identify and illustrate the professional learning capacities among elementary school teachers. Through a qualitative approach, this study enhances the dissemination of teacher experiences and insights, contributing to a nuanced understanding of teachers' capacities for professional development within Iran’s educational context.

The primary aim of this study was to identify the professional learning capacities of primary school teachers in Mashhad city. A qualitative phenomenological approach was used to reach this goal. Using purposive sampling, 15 teachers and eight  primary school principals from three educational districts in Mashhad—each representing varying socio-economic and cultural profiles (affluent, semi-affluent, and less affluent)—were selected as key informants. Participants were chosen for their engagement in educational initiatives and plans at the district and regional levels. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews, and analysis was conducted through open and axial coding. Themes were generated from 23 interviews and analyzed manually as well as with using MaxQDA (VERBI Software, 2020). To ensure data validity, each interview was transcribed and shared with the interviewee for review and feedback.

The study’s findings revealed professional learning capacities across four levels: individual, interpersonal, organizational, and network. Individual capacities reflect teachers' ability to actively build knowledge in teaching, assess, evaluate, critique, and reconstruct their knowledge using available resources, highlighting intrinsic motivation, work commitment, self-directed learning, openness to ideas, feedback and reflective thinking, and a learning vision. Interpersonal capacities encompass teachers' abilities to collaborate toward shared school goals, including experience-sharing, collective learning, role-modeling, and acting as learning facilitators. Organizational capacities are embedded within structures that sustain processes for individual and collective learning and improvement, with essential capacities including a school climate that demands excellence, supportive culture, learning environment dynamism, access to educational resources, instructional media, educational initiatives, and organizational training. Notably, social networking emerged as a significant professional learning capacity at the network level. These findings contribute to understanding schools' capabilities and capacities in the field of education, offering valuable insights for enhancing professional learning in elementary schools across Iran.

The findings of this study underscore a multi-layered approach to understanding professional learning capacities among primary school teachers, revealing the importance of capacities at individual, interpersonal, organizational, and network levels in creating a holistic professional learning environment. This framework illuminates the complex ways in which teachers cultivate and apply skills to improve their instructional practices, engage in meaningful collaboration, and foster a culture of continuous improvement within schools. This study offers valuable insights into the diverse capacities that support professional learning in Iran’s centralized educational system, particularly in elementary schools. The identified multi-level framework serves as a guide for educators, school leaders, and policymakers to enhance both teacher effectiveness and student outcomes. By supporting professional learning at these four distinct levels—personal, collaborative, structural, and networked—school leaders can cultivate a well-rounded professional learning ecosystem that responds to both individual teacher development needs and collective educational objectives. These findings suggest that a comprehensive, integrated approach to professional learning, incorporating self-directed development, collaborative engagement, supportive organizational structures, and broader network connectivity, has the potential to drive sustained improvements in teaching quality across Iran’s elementary schools.

Decision-making processes are primarily influenced by three groups of factors: decision characteristics, situational factors, and individual differences. The term "individual differences" encompasses a wide range of variables (Appelt et al., 2011). In recent decades, research has increasingly focused on understanding these individual differences (Berry et al., 2018). Mindfulness, defined as purposeful and non-judgmental awareness in the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 2019), has emerged as a significant area of study. Conceptualizations of mindfulness posit that it is a metacognitive variable capable of influencing various cognitive processes. Research has identified the metacognitive process of mindfulness as a factor in monitoring and regulating destructive and distracting emotions (Isbel & Summers, 2017). Studies indicate that mindfulness can mitigate automatic and habitual cognitive and emotional responses by fostering unconditional attention and non-judgmental awareness. Decision-making style, a cognitive approach through which individuals process external information to make decisions, raises an important question: How does mindfulness, as a metacognitive monitoring process, influence decision-making styles? It is hypothesized that mindfulness affects not only cognitive aspects but also emotional components crucial for advanced decision-making. The impact of mindfulness on decision-making is such that increased awareness and observation of decision-making processes may enhance decision quality. Mindfulness is characterized as a tool that augments metacognitive insight, enabling individuals to transcend internal and external pressures and gain deeper understanding of their personal desires, needs, and values, thus expanding their range of choices (Sampson et al., 2004). Research suggests that teaching appropriate emotional regulation strategies can improve decision-making styles (Abbariki et al., 2020), and mindfulness techniques have been shown to be effective in enhancing problem-solving skills (Galles et al., 2019).This study aims to explore the relationship between mindfulness and decision-making styles, contributing to the growing body of literature on metacognitive processes and their impact on cognitive and emotional aspects of decision-making.Research hypotheses: The present study investigated the mediating role of cognitive emotion regulation in the relationship between mindfulness and decision-making styles. To address this objective, three hypotheses were formulated:Mindfulness directly predicts decision-making styles.Mindfulness directly predicts various cognitive emotion regulation strategies.Cognitive emotion regulation strategies mediate the relationship between mindfulness and decision-making styles.

This correlational study investigated relationships among variables using structural equation modeling (SEM). The study population comprised students enrolled at Shiraz University during the 2020-2021 academic year. Following Kline's (2016) recommendation of 10-20 participants per model parameter, 302 students (230 females, 72 males) were selected via convenience sampling due to pandemic-related constraints. Descriptive statistics and correlation matrices were analyzed using SPSS-26, while SEM was conducted using AMOS-24 to test the research model and hypotheses.

Structural equation modeling using AMOS software revealed several significant relationships. Mindfulness positively predicted rational decision-making while negatively predicting dependent, avoidant, and immediate decision-making styles. Furthermore, mindfulness positively predicted adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies and negatively predicted maladaptive strategies. The analysis of mediating effects showed that adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies positively mediated the relationship between mindfulness and rational decision-making style. Conversely, these strategies negatively mediated the relationship between mindfulness and dependent, avoidant, and immediate decision-making styles. Overall, increased use of adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies was associated with enhanced rational decision-making and decreased reliance on dependent, avoidant, and immediate decision-making styles.

The findings suggest that training in adaptive cognitive emotion regulation strategies may be an effective approach to promote efficient decision-making styles. This has implications for developing interventions aimed at enhancing decision-making processes. Future research could explore the long-term effects of such training programs and their applicability across different populations and contexts.styles.

During adolescence, students face important changes in physical, cognitive, and psychological dimensions, which lead to a decrease in their motivation and academic performance. Education specialists can prevent this decline in motivation among adolescents by providing educational environments that respond to their developmental needs. The positive youth development approach helps these professionals achieve positive results in the academic field by providing beneficial opportunities, establishing positive relationships, and offering the necessary support to reinforce the strengths of adolescent students.    Considering that students spend most of their time at home, it is necessary to examine the role of mutual relations between family members as an external resource in their development. Family communication patterns examine how family members communicate with others and how they interpret these relationships within the family environment. Among these patterns, the orientation of conversation refers to the family's ability to provide a safe and supportive environment where all members can participate freely and without tension in family discussions and decisions, expressing their opinions. Conversely, family conformity orientation puts pressure on members to assimilate opinions, beliefs, and views.    Hope, as one of the internal resources of an adolescent student, is a positive motivational state; it instills a sense of agency and helps them develop plans toward achievable goals while maintaining their enthusiasm and motivation. Considering the effect of the family environment on the growth and emotions of students, along with the close relationship between hope and positive development, it is possible that family communication patterns, through hope, affect the positive development of students. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the relationship between family communication patterns (conversation and conformity) and positive development in students, with the mediating role of hope.

This study employed a correlational design in which the relationships between variables were investigated using structural equation modeling. The research participants were 423 secondary high school students (228 girls and 195 boys) in Shiraz during the academic year 2023-2024, who were selected using a multi-stage cluster sampling method. First, districts one and two were selected from the four education districts of Shiraz. Then, eight schools (three boys' schools and five girls' schools) were randomly selected from among the secondary schools in these areas. Finally, 16 classes were randomly selected from these schools, and all the students in each class completed the questionnaires. The tools used in this study were the revised Family Communication Patterns Questionnaire, the Positive Youth Development Questionnaire, and the Hope Scale.

The fit indices of the final model in this study were within the acceptable range. Data analysis revealed that among family communication patterns, conversation orientation had a direct and positive effect on the positive development of adolescent students, whereas conformity orientation did not significantly predict positive youth development. Additionally, conversation orientation positively and significantly predicted hope, while conformity orientation showed no significant effect on hope. The findings also indicated that hope played a positive mediating role in the relationship between conversation orientation and positive development of adolescent students. Consequently, conversation orientation indirectly influenced positive youth development through hope. 

This model emphasizes constructive and beneficial mutual relations between youth and family resources as essential for positive development. A supportive family environment, serving as an external resource, can enhance the development of internal resources such as school commitment, positive future expectations, and purposeful self-regulation, which are manifested in the structure of hope. The positive emotional interactions within the family environment between parents and children form the foundation for the healthy development of adolescent students.    The results of this study, consistent with the perspective of positive youth development, highlight the fundamental role of external and internal developmental resources in adolescent students' growth. These findings suggest that implementing training courses to improve family interactions and fostering hope among students could facilitate their path towards positive youth development. Future research should explore additional mediating factors and examine the long-term effects of family communication patterns on adolescent development.

Technological advancements in educational environments, particularly in online education, have brought about numerous challenges. In this regard, the present study examines the impact of technostress on students' academic engagement with the mediating role of technology-induced fatigue. Academic engagement, defined as students' active and effective participation in the learning process, is a key factor in educational success. This study emphasizes the role of technological factors in learning and aims to clarify the processes affecting academic engagement. The objective of this study is to explore the direct and indirect effects of technostress on academic engagement and the mediating role of technology-induced fatigue in this relationship. Technostress, defined as the tension and pressures resulting from the constant use of information and communication technologies, can lead to physical, psychological, and cognitive fatigue. These factors ultimately negatively impact students' motivation and academic performance. The significance of understanding these relationships lies in the need to develop strategies that mitigate technostress and enhance academic engagement, particularly in the context of the growing reliance on online education. The rise of remote learning and virtual classrooms has increased students' exposure to technology, amplifying the likelihood of experiencing technostress and fatigue. This study builds on previous research by focusing on how technology-induced fatigue mediates the relationship between technostress and academic engagement. While prior studies have examined technostress’s direct impact on academic outcomes, limited research has explored the role of fatigue as a potential intermediary factor. The growing prevalence of digital tools in educational settings highlights the importance of addressing these issues to improve students' learning experiences and outcomes. In this context, understanding the dynamic between technostress, fatigue, and engagement is essential for educators, policymakers, and academic institutions aiming to foster better learning environments.

The research method employed in this study was descriptive-correlational. The research population included all students at Shiraz University in the 2023-2024 academic year. A total of 389 students (205 women and 184 men) were selected through proportional random sampling. Data were collected using standardized questionnaires on technostress, academic engagement, and technology-induced fatigue, whose validity and reliability had been confirmed in previous studies. The data analysis was conducted using SPSS and AMOS software through structural equation modeling (SEM). This methodological approach allowed for a comprehensive examination of the relationships between the variables, providing robust insights into the direct and indirect effects of technostress on academic engagement. The standardized questionnaires used in this study were carefully selected to ensure accurate measurement of the constructs. The technostress questionnaire assessed various dimensions of stress related to technology use, including overload, complexity, and insecurity. The academic engagement questionnaire measured dimensions such as vigor, dedication, and absorption, capturing students' involvement and enthusiasm in their academic activities. The technology-induced fatigue questionnaire focused on physical, emotional, and cognitive fatigue resulting from prolonged technology use. The combination of these instruments enabled a nuanced understanding of the study's variables and their interconnections.

The results indicated that technostress had a positive and significant effect on technology-induced fatigue. Specifically, students who experienced higher levels of technostress reported greater physical, emotional, and cognitive fatigue due to their technology usage. This fatigue, in turn, had a negative and significant impact on academic engagement, as fatigued students were less likely to actively participate in their learning processes. Furthermore, technostress indirectly and negatively affected academic engagement through technology-induced fatigue, highlighting the mediating role of fatigue in this relationship. The structural equation modeling results confirmed the hypothesized relationships among the variables. The direct path from technostress to academic engagement was significant, but its weight was reduced when technology-induced fatigue was included in the model as a mediator. This indicates that fatigue partially mediates the relationship between technostress and academic engagement. These results align with previous studies, which have shown that excessive use of technology can lead to burnout and decreased academic performance.

This study concludes that technostress and technology-induced fatigue negatively impact students' academic engagement. These findings highlight the necessity of effective interventions to reduce technostress and manage technology-induced fatigue for improving academic engagement and performance in online learning environments. The results emphasize the importance of equipping students with strategies to cope with technostress, such as time management, mindfulness, and digital literacy training. Educational institutions should consider implementing programs that promote healthy technology use and provide support systems for students experiencing fatigue. Additionally, the study’s findings underscore the need for a holistic approach to addressing technostress, considering both individual and institutional factors. Institutions can play a pivotal role by designing user-friendly learning platforms, reducing the cognitive load associated with digital tools, and fostering a supportive learning community. Providing workshops and resources on managing digital workloads and maintaining a balance between online and offline activities could further help alleviate technostress and fatigue. Future research could investigate these relationships across different cultures and groups and explore the effects of other variables such as gender, educational level, and personality traits. For instance, examining whether students from different academic disciplines experience varying levels of technostress and fatigue could provide valuable insights. Additionally, longitudinal studies could track changes in technostress and academic engagement over time, offering a deeper understanding of these dynamics in evolving educational contexts. Exploring the potential moderating role of factors such as social support, academic self-efficacy, and technological proficiency could also enhance the understanding of how to effectively address these challenges. In conclusion, this study highlights the critical impact of technostress and technology-induced fatigue on academic engagement, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions and support mechanisms. As educational environments continue to integrate digital technologies, prioritizing students' well-being and engagement remains essential for fostering academic success and positive learning experiences.

The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) has introduced new dimensions to the digital divide, creating an AI divide that affects access, benefits, and opportunities across different regions and socioeconomic groups. Artificial intelligence (AI) literacy is increasingly vital in today's world as it becomes an integral part of daily life and the workforce. It involves understanding how AI works, its capabilities, limitations, and ethical implications. AI literacy empowers individuals to critically evaluate AI outputs, ensuring informed decision-making and responsible use of AI technologies. In education, AI literacy is crucial for educators and students to leverage AI for improved learning outcomes and educational management. It also opens up new job opportunities and enhances professional skills, making it a differentiating skill for future leaders. Moreover, with the AI Act mandating AI literacy for organizations using AI systems, it is essential for compliance and ethical AI deployment. By developing AI literacy, individuals can navigate an AI-infused world effectively, ensuring they remain informed consumers and critical thinkers. Overall, AI literacy is not just about technical knowledge but also about understanding AI's societal and ethical implications, making it indispensable for personal and professional growth in the digital age.  This study investigates the relationship between the digital divide and AI literacy, with a focus on the mediating roles of computational thinking and cognitive absorption among student-teachers. In today's technology-driven world, computational thinking (CT) and cognitive absorption are crucial skills that enhance an individual's ability to navigate complex digital environments effectively. Computational thinking involves problem-solving skills such as decomposition, pattern recognition, and algorithmic thinking, which are foundational for understanding and applying A) concepts. Cognitive absorption, on the other hand, refers to the degree to which an individual becomes engaged and immersed in a technological environment, which can significantly influence their learning and interaction with AI systems. CT skills are essential for breaking down complex problems into manageable parts, analyzing data, and developing solutions. This skillset is vital for educators and students alike, as it enhances their ability to integrate AI tools into educational settings. Studies have shown that computational thinking is a significant predictor of AI literacy, meaning that individuals with strong CT skills tend to have better understanding and application of AI concepts. In an era where AI and machine learning are rapidly evolving, CT skills enable individuals to adapt quickly to new technologies and innovations.

This study employed a descriptive-correlational method, collecting data from a sample of 946 student-teachers at the Farhangian University of Zanjan using various scales (AI literacy skill, Computational Thinking, Cognitive absorption, and Information and Communication Technology Access Scale) and the census method. Data analysis was conducted using PLS-4 and SPSS-27 software.

The study reveals that computational thinking is a significant factor in enhancing AI literacy. It indicated the pivotal role of CT in enhancing artificial intelligence AI literacy. Computational thinking, a problem-solving approach that involves decomposition, pattern recognition, and algorithmic thinking, is crucial for understanding and effectively using AI technologies. By fostering CT skills, individuals can better comprehend AI concepts, critically evaluate AI outputs, and apply AI solutions to real-world problems. It also shows that access to information and communication technologies (ICTs) facilitates better use of AI by individuals. Furthermore, having more motivation and skills to use AI technologies leads to a more positive experience. Notably, the findings indicate an indirect relationship between the digital divide and AI literacy, mediated by computational thinking and cognitive absorption. This suggests that these mediating factors play an additive role in bridging the gap between the digital divide and AI literacy. The results highlight the importance of promoting computational thinking and cognitive absorption to improve AI literacy among student-teachers. They also underscore the need for equitable access to ICTs to ensure that individuals can effectively engage with AI technologies. Ensuring equitable access to information and communication technologies (ICTs) is crucial for individuals to effectively engage with artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. This access is not merely a technological issue but also deeply intertwined with socio-economic factors, such as income and geographic location, which can exacerbate the digital divide.

 The digital divide refers to the unequal access to digital technologies, including computers, smartphones, and the internet, among different demographic groups and regions. This gap is not just about physical access but also encompasses differences in digital literacy and the ability to effectively use these technologies. The digital divide is multifaceted, involving disparities in access (first-level digital divide) and usage (second-level digital divide) of ICTs. It affects various socioeconomic groups within countries and between developed and developing nations, exacerbating existing social inequalities and creating a persistent information gap between those with access ("haves") and those without ("have-nots"). Factors contributing to the digital divide include affordability, availability of technology, geographic location, and education level. For instance, rural areas often have limited internet access compared to urban regions, while lower-income households may struggle to afford modern devices and internet services. Addressing the digital divide requires comprehensive strategies, such as investing in infrastructure, promoting digital literacy, and implementing policies to ensure equitable access to technology. Closing this gap is crucial for ensuring that all individuals can participate fully in the digital economy and benefit from its opportunities. This study contributes to understanding how educational interventions can address the AI divide by focusing on these mediating factors, ultimately enhancing digital equity and inclusivity in the educational sector. In conclusion, this study provides insights into how computational thinking and cognitive absorption mediate the digital divide and AI literacy relationship. It emphasizes the need for targeted educational strategies to enhance AI literacy and reduce the digital divide, ensuring that future educators are equipped to navigate and leverage AI technologies effectively. By addressing these challenges, educational institutions can foster a more inclusive and digitally literate community.

In recent years, the issue of educational quality in universities and higher education institutions in Iran has been widely discussed by experts in the field. As the primary mission of these institutions is to train skilled and committed professionals for national service, focusing on the quality of education is crucial, as it directly affects graduates' effectiveness in contributing to society. However, studies indicate that the effectiveness of higher education in Iran is questionable, with graduates often lacking the knowledge, attitudes, and skills expected by society. Several factors contribute to this issue, including uncontrolled quantitative growth despite serious deficiencies in quality standards, the emergence of a degree-oriented culture driven by misguided policies, commercialization of higher education, irrational tendencies in university management, weakened faculty institutions, memory-based learning systems, misconceptions regarding virtualization effects, centralization impacts, and neglect of demand-side needs in the education system (Eghbali et al., 2021; Farasatkhah, 2022; Keshavarz Ruodaki et al., 2023; Rashidi, 2017). These factors contribute to the deterioration of 'quality learning' in universities. As a result, scientific thinking and curiosity-driven inquiry are not nurtured in students; they are also not encouraged to develop professional and cultural self-awareness (Andresen et al., 2020). To address these challenges, an educational approach that instigates fundamental changes in conventional structures is required. One such approach is Research-Based Education (RBE), which emphasizes integrating research into teaching practices. The core idea behind RBE is to establish a link between teaching and research as a catalyst for better connections between students and society. The ultimate goal of this approach is to bridge the gap between theoretical education and real-world practice while equipping students with both knowledge and skills necessary for effective application to improve educational quality (Huet, 2017; Syaharuddin et al., 2022).

This study was designed and conducted within the interpretive paradigm, with a qualitative approach and phenomenological method. The participants included 21 higher education experts who were selected through purposeful sampling, utilizing snowball sampling and maximum variation techniques. Data was collected through in-depth unstructured interviews, and the data analysis was performed using the seven-stage strategy of Colaizzi.

The study's findings indicate that research-based education can significantly contribute to mitigating the quality deficit in education. Data analysis identified a primary category, "Research-Based Education," and three subcategories: "Research-Oriented Teaching," "Management and Support," and "Ethical-Cultural Charter." Research-oriented teaching emphasized cultivating creativity and research competencies, while management and support focused on transformational leadership and providing robust support to both students and faculty as pivotal factors in enhancing educational quality.

The findings suggest that many Iranian universities underemphasize faculty professional development and struggle to establish an effective nexus between teaching and research. Consequently, this has contributed to a decline in educational quality and a misalignment with the needs of the labor market. The research-based education model offers a potential avenue to bridge this gap by fostering a more interactive and dynamic learning environment. With the integration of teaching and research, the curriculum can evolve dynamically, and novel research questions can arise from student-faculty interactions, facilitating continuous improvement in both teaching and research endeavors. Furthermore, research-based education equips students with essential problem-solving, critical thinking, and research skills necessary to address real-world challenges. In conclusion, this study indicates that enhancing the quality of university education hinges on the effective integration of teaching and research. These findings also underscore the necessity for systemic reforms within the higher education structure, advocating for the broader implementation of research-based educational programs. Policy recommendations include establishing teaching excellence centers at prominent universities, allocating targeted educational grants to exemplary educators, and developing educational development centers alongside reinforcing research infrastructures, such as research hubs and networks.

The study of students' motivational and cognitive aspects provides important insights into how they interact in the educational environment, serving as a resource for planning strategies to reduce their psychological and academic problems. One of the basic psychological variables that drives students to learn and achieve academic success is motivation (Griffin, 2016). Academic motivation fosters internal active learning and influences the meaning and cognitive activities associated with the learning process (Finch et al., 2024). Attribution theory, which explains how people understand and interpret events, is relevant to academic behaviors (Weiner, 1979). This theory suggests that personal and environmental experiences, such as social norms and prior knowledge, can affect attribution types. Cognitive flexibility, another cognitive construct, enhances motivation and optimism (Cardom, 2016). Individuals with cognitive flexibility effectively solve problems in challenging situations. Mindfulness has been linked to positive psychology variables, with interventions shown to improve outcomes like hope, optimism, motivation, and academic performance (Shute, 2019). Over the past two decades, mindfulness programs have increased in schools (Ergas, 2019). Despite this, few studies have examined mindfulness training's impact on attribution styles, cognitive flexibility, and motivation in Iran. Therefore, this study investigates the effect of mindfulness training on these variables in adolescent students.

This study employed a quasi-experimental design with a pre-test and post-test structure, including a control group. The research population consisted of all eighth-grade female students at the first stage high school in Hamedan during the 2023-2024 academic year. Available sampling was used to select the sample, which was divided into experimental (21 students) and control (21 students) groups. All intervention processes were conducted by one of the researchers in school classrooms. The research tools included the Attributional Style Questionnaire (Peterson & Seligman, 1984), the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010), and the Academic Motivation Scale (Vallerand et al., 1992). Ethical considerations included voluntary participation, the right to withdraw from the intervention at any time, and the principles of confidentiality and privacy of information. In the pre-test phase, both groups completed the questionnaires. The experimental group then received mindfulness training adapted for children and adolescents in eight one-hour sessions, while the control group did not. Both groups completed the questionnaires again in the post-test phase.

Descriptive indicators such as mean and standard deviation were used to describe the data, and multivariate analysis of covariance was employed to test the research hypotheses. The analysis revealed that mindfulness training had a significant effect on enhancing students' academic motivation (F = 43.84, p < 0.01). The mean academic motivation scores of the students in the experimental group increased significantly in the post-test compared to the control group. Mindfulness also significantly improved cognitive flexibility (F = 5.97, p < 0.05), as evidenced by higher mean cognitive flexibility scores in the experimental group. Additionally, mindfulness significantly reduced negative attribution styles (F = 32.37, p < 0.01) and increased positive attribution styles (F = 7.71, p < 0.01) in the experimental group. 

This study aimed to examine the effect of mindfulness training on attribution styles, cognitive flexibility, and academic motivation among female junior high school students. Mindfulness focuses on the present, enhancing learners' motivation without stress (Hafenbrack & Vohs, 2018). By teaching individuals to be aware of the present and not focus on the past or future, mindfulness reduces habitual thinking and increases mental flexibility. The results indicate that mindfulness training made students more aware of their thoughts and emotions, teaching them new ways to manage challenges. This was effective in improving their academic motivation, mental flexibility, and attribution styles. Given its effectiveness, it is suggested that mindfulness training workshops be held continuously to familiarize counselors with mindfulness and implement it effectively in schools.