نشریه اقتصاد کشاورزی و توسعه
پیاپی 127 (پاییز 1403)

The development of non-oil exports increases Iran's foreign exchange earnings. These revenues, if allocated optimally, can lead the country to economic growth. The agricultural sector is one of the most important and strategic economic sectors of the country. It accounts for a significant share of non-oil exports and has a high currency-earning position. Also, among agricultural products, dried fruits are considered as one of the most valuable and demanded export goods of Iran over recent years; so, supporting producers and exporters of these products is very important to produce domestic dried fruit and create a market for their export. In order to increase non-oil exports and support domestic production, governments tend to  use various policies, including export subsidies and some trade restrictions. Therefore, this study mainly aimed at investigating the effectiveness of the export subsidy policy in relation to the trade of two major export products including pistachio and walnut.

In this study, using panel data during 2001-2022, the assumptions were examined using gravity model.

The study results showed that the export subsidy had a significantly positive effect on the export of the two studied products; in addition, Gross Domestic Product (GDP), population and exchange rate had a significantly positive effect while distance and sanctions had a negative effect on pistachio and walnut exports. 

Since, the implementation of the export subsidy policy has faced challenges, to make the export subsidy payment policy more effective, it should be allocated to different products and be appropriate to the market needs for the same products, and this policy should be granted to new exporters in line with the development of the new domestic industry, and international transportation infrastructure should be expanded to strengthen bilateral trade relations.

The development of production and export of non-oil products has been considered as one of the major goals of Iran's development programs since the Islamic Revolution in 1979. In this regard, it is necessary to know the country's products and activities that have a comparative advantage and the potential to influence the global market. Nevertheless, despite the great impact of agricultural products in creating employment and income for farmers and the economic growth of countries, the issue of marketing the agricultural products in developing countries, including Iran, is currently one of the important issues that is simply given less attention in the course of the economic development of the agricultural sector. It has been taken and accepted that in the conditions of not identifying the market and ensuring the existence of demand for the goods, production has no meaning and before the production of the desired product, factors such as market efficiency and the agricultural products marketing should be examined and paid due attention. Therefore, examining the price situation of agricultural products at different levels of the market is considered as one of the most important topics in the field of market efficiency and marketing system. Among the agricultural products of the world, cherry is of great importance, so that this product has become one of the most important sources for generating income, commercial exchanges and employment for the residents of about 80 cherry-growing countries around the world.

Tucker believes that efficiency has maximum importance in marketing analysis, and profit in the marketing of a manufactured product is directly related to its efficiency. According to him, the ineffective marketing system causes high costs, large losses, destruction of products and unreasonable prices. But, on the other hand, the high efficiency of marketing causes the income of producers to increase by selling at a higher price or the satisfaction of consumers by reducing the purchase price. In this study, to investigate the efficiency of the cherry product market in Urmia County of Iran, first, by using visual marketing attraction indicators, the market situation was revealed and presented in each of the channels facing the producer, followed by using the indicators of the share of market factors in the final price of the product, the market margin, the coefficient of marketing costs and the benefit-cost ratio, the ‘market efficiency’ of the cherry product in Urmia County was analyzed.

Examining the share of production factors in the final price of the product in the market showed that, on average, in the total of four analyzed channels, the share of the producer, wholesaler, retailer and exporter in the final price of the product was 50.55, 22.62, 5.79 and 21.04, respectively, while special processing or high marketing cost used to be rarely done by exporters, wholesalers and retailers in the market. Therefore, the producer's low share of the cherry market in Urmia can ultimately lead to a decrease in the motivation to produce this product. In the case of clustered cherry, in the two main investigated channels, the average share of the producer, wholesaler and retailer in the final price of cherries was equal to 57.33, 28.29 and 28.76, respectively, so that the high price share of wholesalers and retailers, despite their low marketing costs, has caused dissatisfaction among the producers of this product. Based on the results obtained, the highest wholesale marketing margin in single-seeded and clustered cherry cultivars was related to the producer-wholesaler-consumer channel. The highest ‘marketing expenditure coefficient’ in single-seeded cherry with 28.85 percent was related to marketing channel 2, and in the case of clustered cherries, marketing channel 1 had the highest marketing expenditure coefficient with 31.86 percent. For single-seeded cherries, the highest benefit-cost ratio with 4.26 was related to the wholesale and for producer, retailer and exporter levels, on average was 2.60, 2.81 and 1.97, respectively. For clustered cherries, the benefit-cost ratio for producer, wholesaler and retailer was calculated to be 1.8, 1.8 and 1.74, respectively.

According to the study results, the producer's economic benefits in single-seeded cherries are more than clustered cherries. Therefore, it is suggested that in the long-term plan, taking into account government incentives such as ease of access to facilities, the worn-out clustered cherry orchards should be transformed into the single-seeded cherry orchards. Also, due to the good yield rate in single-seeded cherry orchards, there would be less concern about the repayment of facilities in this type of cherry. In addition, due to the existence of significant benefits in the export channels of single-seeded cherry products, it is suggested to pave the ground for empowering production cooperatives in the region, so that these cooperatives can form the core of the single-seeded cherry exports, aiming at obtaining more benefits for the producer.

The real exchange rate, as one of the key macroeconomic variables, has always been focused by policymakers and economists. Also, the effect of the real exchange rate on the quality of Iran's export agricultural products is one of the important issues in agricultural economics. The change in the real exchange rate through changes in the composition of export goods, exporters’ motivation, demand elasticity as well as in other variables can cause variation in the quality of agricultural products. Therefore, this study mainly aimed at investigating the effect of real exchange rate shocks on the quality of Iran's export agricultural products using the Panel-SVAR model in the form of monthly panel data for 36 countries during 2007-2020. In addition, in this study, the effects of changes shocks in real GDP per capita and also in the quantity and price of Iran's agricultural products on their quality were investigated.

The study used the panel SVAR methodology developed by Pedroni (2013) to analyze the effect of the real exchange rate on the quality of Iran's export agricultural products, as follows:In the above equation, c and t indices indicate the country and time period; the λ, q and 𝜋 variables also indicate the quality, quantity and price of export agricultural products, respectively; in addition, RER and RGDP represent the bilateral real exchange rate (between the exporting and importing countries) and the real GDP per capita for the importing country of Iran's agricultural products, respectively. Based on the above equation, the panel SVAR model could be defined as follows:In the above equation, Sc is the matrix of structural parameters and reflects the short-term relationship between model variables. According to Mao et al. (2021), the Sc matrix could be considered as follows:

The results of the Impulse Response Functions (IRFs) showed that the cumulative response of the quality of Iran's agricultural products to shocks of real exchange rate was significantly positive, so that it would increase suddenly at the beginning of the period and then, reach a stable state, and the full effect of real exchange rate shocks would be revealed in the short term. In fact, an increase in the real exchange rate will improve the quality of Iran's export agricultural products. In addition, the cumulative response of the quality of Iran's agricultural products to shocks of GDP per capita and also the quantity and price of Iran's export agricultural products was significantly positive. Finally, the results of the structural variance decomposition showed that in the first five periods, the variables of quality of export agricultural products (by 88 percent) and the amount of export agricultural products (by 10 percent) had the greatest effects on changes in the quality of export agricultural products of Iran, respectively.

The study results have important policy implications for the government and companies that export agricultural products. The response of the quality of Iran’s export agricultural products in the short term showed that the improvement in the quality of these products after the increase in the bilateral real exchange rate can be achieved by the improvement of the quality of agricultural products in Iran's export baskets. Therefore, efforts towards the sustainable improvement of the quality of agricultural products through the advanced technologies, supporting Research and Development (R&D) activities in quality improvement and designing a comprehensive pattern of trade with the target countries can be the suitable solution considered by the government.

Over recent years, the studies related to poverty have not been limited to income poverty and depend on other dimensions including health, education and living standards as well. The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) is one of the most important indicators in poverty investigations. Poverty depends not only on monetary indicators such as income, but also involves non-monetary dimensions including nutrition, housing, education, employment, health care, access to good quality infrastructure, human rights, social security, social deprivation, etc. Considering the importance of poverty reduction in maintaining the country's national security, one of the ideals pursued by the Islamic Revolution of Iran was to establish social justice and increase the level of welfare, especially among low-income individuals in the society. Also, poverty alleviation is an important part of the goals in sustainable development, and removing any kind of deprivation has been emphasized in the Constitution of Iran. In this regard, reducing poverty and inequality is one of the important policies of the country's economic development programs. So, this study mainly aimed at estimating the multidimensional poverty in the sixth development plan by separating urban and rural areas of Iran. In addition, considering that one of the important goals of development programs is to reduce poverty in different dimensions, this study sought an answer to the question of whether the sixth development plan of Iran has reduced poverty in different dimensions?

In this research, the multidimensional poverty index was calculated in Alkire-Foster method during the sixth five-year economic, social and cultural development plan of the Islamic Republic of Iran (2017-2021) using the raw data of household income and expenditure of Statistical Center of Iran (SCI), which was conducted in two stages. In the Alkire-Foster method, first, the deprived people are identified from each dimension using deprivation thresholds and second, the number of poor people is summed up to calculate the index for the whole society. Therefore, firstly, to identify the poor people, the set of dimensions based on which the deprivation of people would be measured was determined according to the dimensions available in the household income cost data. For this purpose, three dimensions of education, health and living standard were considered.

Reviewing the performance of the sixth development plan showed that during the studied years, the poverty headcount ratio, the intensity of poverty and also the multidimensional poverty in urban and rural areas had increased. Also, the headcount ratio in the urban areas was higher than that of the rural areas in all the studied years, but the intensity of poverty was higher in all years in the rural areas, rather than in the urban areas. In addition, the study results showed that the sixth five-year development plan had reduced deprivation in various sub-indices, but in some sub-indices such as suitable nutrition and health insurance, the desired results had not been achieved. According to the results, during the studied years, the dimensions of suitable nutrition and health insurance have the largest contribution to the country's multidimensional poverty. The indicators of the two indexes/dimensions including education and living standard had smaller shares in the multidimensional poverty index, respectively.

The estimation of Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) in the urban and rural areas of Iran showed that the level of MPI in Iran had increased during the sixth five-year development plan. In fact, Iran still needs prudent and accurate planning to eradicate extreme poverty in the society, especially on the sub-indices (indicators0 associated to more deprived people. The study results showed that the sixth five-year development plan reduced deprivation in various sub-indices, but in some indicators such as suitable nutrition and treatment, the desired results were not achieved. Also, the results showed that in the period of 2017-2021, the MPI had an upward trend and the percentage of deprived people in the country increased. Based on the study results, during 2017-2021, the extent and intensity of multidimensional poverty had increased, and the dimension of suitable nutrition and health insurance had the largest contribution to Iran’s MPI, in the urban and rural areas. Therefore, in order to reduce the multidimensional poverty among households, it is suggested to develop a policy program in different dimensions of poverty with respect to, among others, a food basket plan containing the calories and protein required by the body for vulnerable households in order to reduce food insecurity, making necessary arrangements regarding the health insurance for households and creating suitable incentives to encourage households to continue their education at higher levels as well as creating the necessary facilities for more households to enjoy the high living standards should be considered. It is also suggested to give priority to the indicators of suitable nutrition and health insurance, which have the largest share in the MPI of households in Iran's future development plans.

The development of regional food hubs has become a strategic plan to secure the food system by improving local producers and hubs to connect local producers and consumers. In this regard, this study aimed at responding whether Iran's agricultural sector would have the necessary capacities to create regional hubs for the trade of agricultural commodities.

For this purpose, the production and export capacities of the horticultural products, which account for nearly half of Iran's agricultural exports, were analyzed. This study used five indices including Symmetric Revealed Comparative Advantage (SRCA), Lafay Index (LI), Concentration Ratio (CR), Efficiency Advantage Index (EAI), and relative import advantage to provide comprehensive results.

The study results showed that Iran had an advantage in exporting horticultural products and this advantage increased over time; in other words, Iran's competitiveness in exporting these products increased globally. According to the results, Iran's main trading partners, such as the United Arab Emirates, Iraq, and Türkiye, are among the largest importers of horticultural products, whose imports have advantages. Also, the markets of Iraq and Türkiye are highly dependent on Iran's exports, and Iran's competitiveness have increased in these markets.

Most of the regional countries (except Türkiye) are major importers of horticultural products and do not have the ability to produce competitively horticultural products, and Iran is the only country in the region that has common land and sea borders with the main importers of these products. Therefore, Iran should use this opportunity to create a regional hub by developing a business plan with a win-win policy approach as well as improving and developing legal and commercial structures and transit and customs infrastructures.

Due to a very little need of Damask Rose for water and  its large land adaptability as well as its high lands proportionality, and technical knowledge of farmers for its cultivation in East Azerbaijan province of Iran, a basic need for a deep study is necessary to increase employment and improve income of a large group of rural households with the aim of identifying, analyzing and prioritizing business strategies of developing Damask Rose cultivation and its processing industries in this province. Related research literature review showed that so far, a similar study with TOPSIS method has not analyzed business strategies in developing the Damask Rose cultivation and its processing industries in the East Azerbaijan province.

For this purpose, after integrating the criteria extracted through Delphi study as the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of developing the Damask Rose cultivation and its processing industries in the East Azerbaijan province, in order to develop marketing strategies based on matrix of Ansoff after confirming its formal validity, by giving a score to compare each of the strategic options in the conditions of those criteria in the form of a Likert spectrum from 1 to 9 in the researcher-made questionnaire, the data were collected from all experts in 2023 and analyzed after confirming its reliability in an entropy method with the TOPSIS technique in Excel software.

The study results showed ambitious marketing and diversification strategies were respectively placed in the first and second ranks in development of business of Damask Rose cultivation; in addition, balanced and bold marketing strategies were respectively selected as the first and second ranks in development of its processing industries, indicating that there would be a conflict in the business development strategies of Damask Rose cultivation and its processing industries in the province. According to these results, it will not be possible to implement marketing strategies of Damask Rose cultivation development before improving the economic status of its processing industries in the province.

Therefore, the process of Damask Rose cultivation development in the East Azerbaijan province while solving economic problems and putting the first priority for its industries in the provincial financial supports of the government, including providing low-interest banking facilities, reducing income tax and allocating government foreign currency in the import of needed devices, and also in the transition phase from economic crisis of country, do producing new pleasant products in current markets by Damask Rose processing industries of the studied province at the same time. It is also recommended to resolve the concerned conflict in this industry through the assignment of Damask Rose processing industries development to a professional authority in Ministry of Agriculture-Jahad (MAJ) of Iran.

Due to the vast benefits and advantages of investment, understanding the role of different accelerators of investment has always been one of the most challenging issues for economists. The significant differences between regions in different periods to achieve investment have made economists more interested in identifying the factors affecting investment. Meanwhile, agricultural investment, especially in developing countries, plays a crucial role in poverty reduction, food security, and development of other sectors. One of the great objectives of Iranian economy in current year is the ‘production jump’. Therefore, the issue of the investment such as agricultural investment is a necessity for Iran. Given the importance of agricultural investment, researchers try to determine different factors affecting the investment in agricultural sector and their mechanisms to affect it. One of these variables could be bank credit. Despite the relative consensus of economists on the positive impact of credit on growth and investment, some emphasize that the influence of public and private bank lending on these variables is different. In other words, bank ownership and lending from the public or private banks can play a non-identical impact on investment and growth. Banks' lending behavior is influenced by their ownership structure and specific objectives. Some economists believe that state-owned banks' lending decisions are more affected than private banks. Therefore, the role of these banks can be different from that of the private banks in economic growth and investment. On the contrary, proponents of private banking argue that the inadequate financial structure, the high volume of delinquent receivables, the inefficient allocation of credit, and the lack of dynamism in banks are due to government management practices on banks. A review of previous studies shows that few studies have examined the influence of bank ownership and their credit allocation on agricultural investment. Therefore, the present study used quarterly data to investigate whether private or public banks play a role in the impact of bank credit on the investment of the agricultural sector or not.

Based on the theoretical foundations, and previous studies such as Önder & Özyıldırım (2013) as well as access to required quarterly data, in this study, the following regression within an equation was used to examine the impact of bank credit on the agricultural investment: Where LI, LC, LP, LR, LO, and LER would be the logarithm forms of the agricultural investment, agricultural credits, the share of credits granted by private banks to the total credits granted in the agricultural sector, interest rate, oil income, and exchange rate, respectively. The LR and LO were the traditional variables of investment models. The LC and LER were used many times in previous studies, but the LP variable entered the agricultural investment model for the first time in this study. The symbols of a, e , and b indicated constant, the error term and slope coefficients, respectively. For each of the variables, except exchange rate, quarterly data from the fourth season of 2010 to the fourth season of 2022 were gathered from Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran (CBI). For exchange rate, the monthly data of the CBI was used. Seasonal data have the advantage that they allow the researcher to examine the relationship between variables in terms of seasonal variations. Due to the seasonal behavior of the agricultural sector, the use of seasonal data was of particular importance. All value variables were based on the constant value of 2011. In this Study, the Hylleberg et al. (1990) test was used to test unit root. To Estimate the model, Generalized Auto-Regressive Distributed Lag (DARDL) model was used with Mixed-Data Sampling (MIDAS) model in a combination form of MIDAS-GARDL approach.

The unit root test did not give the consistent results. Therefore, the ARDL family ougtht to be  used, because it could be used even if there was a combination of I(0) and I(1) variables in the model. The results showed the oil income in the agricultural sector had a significantly positive effect on the investment of the agricultural sector (in accordance with economic theories and empirical studies0; in addition, the exchange rate had a significantly negative effect, including the negative effect of the increase in the exchange rate, on the investment of the agricultural sector; the interest rate had also a significantly negative erect, indicating the negative effect of the increase in the agricultural interest rate on the investment of the agricultural sector. The coefficient of agricultural credit was similar to the variable of investment in the sector where both of them were positive while their impacts were relatively estimated lower (therefore, the increase in agricultural credit caused to increase agricultural investment0. As shown by the study results, the ratio of private bank credit to total bank credits did not have a significant effect on the investment of the agricultural sector and so, the more bank credits were granted by the public banks, the greater the impact on the investment of the agricultural sector. 

According to the study results, the following policy recommendations are presented:Due to the negative impact of the interest rate on the investment of the agricultural sector, it is suggested to consider the negative impact of interest rate increase on the investment in this sector. It is also suggested to decrease the interest rate to promote the investment. Considering the positive effect of oil income on the investment of the agricultural sector, attention should be paid to the negative effects of the decrease in oil revenues especially in the conditions of economic sanctions on the investment of the agricultural sector, and this damage should be compensated through other sources such as attracting foreign investment. Considering the positive effect of bank credit on the investment of the agricultural sector, it is suggested to increase agricultural credit to increase the investment in this sector. Due to the higher impact of the credit of public banks compared to private banks, it is suggested to conduct an analysis regarding the payment of credit granted by private banks. Some experts believe that private banks direct production credits to non-productive sectors instead of productive ones in the economy. Therefore, for the success of privatization policies in Iran, it is necessary to pay more attention to the higher efficiency of private banks. In order to eliminate the possible damages of private banks in providing credits, it is better to grant more credit through the public banks with more supervision of government agencies. It should be noted that in bad economic conditions, the public banks, due to their access to more financial resources, would compensate for the decrease in the granting of facilities by the private banks, through anti-cyclical behavior which used to be more effective than that of the private banks, to maintain balance in the credit market in increasing growth and economic investment.

Eggs are among the most important, affordable, and sustainable food items, offering a rich source of high-quality protein. However, fluctuations in egg prices and production input costs present significant challenges to Iran's poultry industry, leading to annual market imbalances. Despite the potential for price transmission across regions and links in the supply chain, differences in regional capacities and market structures contribute to disparities in prices, marketing margins, and production volumes. As the 14th largest global egg producer, Iran holds considerable influence in Western and Middle Eastern Asia. Nevertheless, price volatility and input variability continue to disrupt the poultry sector, challenging market stability. Understanding regional price disparities within Iranian provinces is crucial for developing effective policies to stabilize egg prices. Despite its importance, this issue has been insufficiently studied. Therefore, this research aimed at clustering the provinces based on average egg prices at wholesale and retail levels, production volumes, and retail marketing margins.

In this study, clustering was performed using hierarchical and K-means methods, and a comparison of cluster means was conducted using SPSS software. The data required for the analysis included average monthly nominal prices for eggs at both wholesale and retail levels as well as average egg production across all provinces in Iran. The period of investigation spaned from April 2015 to December 2019.

The study results showed that the provinces of Iran were divided into four clusters based on wholesale prices and three clusters based on retail prices, retail marketing margins, and production volumes. The lowest wholesale and retail prices were found in Cluster 1, including the provinces of Semnan, Qom, and Kermanshah. The highest wholesale prices were in Cluster 4, comprising the provinces of Khuzestan, Bushehr, Hormozgan, Sistan and Baluchistan, Jiroft and Kahnuj, and Kurdistan. The highest retail prices were in Cluster 3, including the provinces of East Azarbaijan, West Azarbaijan, Ardabil, Ilam, Bushehr, Tehran, Jiroft and Kahnuj, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, Khuzestan, Zanjan, Fars, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad, Guilan, and Hormozgan. The average wholesale prices across clusters ranged from 149,111 IRI rials/kg in Cluster 1 to 193,789.33 IRI rials/kg in Cluster 4, while average retail prices ranged from 175,140.7 IRI rials/kg in Cluster 1 to 218,120.24 IRI rials/kg in Cluster 3. Therefore, there was a wide range of regional differences in egg prices across the country. Both hierarchical and K-means clustering methods indicated that the provinces of  Ilam, Fars, and Tehran had the largest retail marketing margins, placing them in Cluster 3. The ten main egg-producing provinces including Tehran, Isfahan, Razavi Khorasan, East Azerbaijan, Qazvin, Alborz, Mazandaran, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer Ahmad, Fars, and Sistan and Baluchistan were distributed across Clusters 2 and 3. Cluster 1, representing the provinces with the lowest production and prices (Semnan, Qom, and Kermanshah), did not include any of the major egg-producing provinces. 

Considering the wide range of regional price differences across clusters, setting a single price to regulate the egg market at the national level does not appear appropriate. To facilitate the price transmission between the provinces and reduce the price disparities and fluctuations, the roles of marketing agents and market structure are more critical than production volume and supply. Therefore, it is essential to take these factors into account when making regulatory decisions.

Value chain, as the main component and the most important key to success in the knowledge-based economy, includes activities that can add value, facilitate the process of production and supply of the product to market as well as it makes the final product competitive in terms of price. Agricultural value chain is complicated and includes production inputs, farmers, wholesalers, traders, food companies and retailers, all of which must respond to various consumer demands in a sustainable and acceptable manner. This complexity makes them distinct from other chains of economic sectors including both industry and services. Study of agricultural product chain in different regions shows that the placement of all production links of any type of product in one geographical area and in line with each other has reduced production costs and caused synergy and greater efficiency in all links. Although, market-orientation and paying attention to the value chain of agricultural products are extremely important, addressing them in a large scale will not bring much achievement, so that presenting real examples can make this discussion completely practical. Therefore, the analysis of the value chain of strategic and important products in different regions, including garlic in Hamadan province of Iean, provides great opportunities for different beneficiaries directly or indirectly in the value chain.

This study was an applied-developmental one with a combined approach and at a strategic level, it was conducted in a descriptive-analytical survey method in terms of the non-experimental control of variables. In carrying out this research, a deep documentary and library review along with a secondary data and survey (using questionnaire instrument) and interviews with chain actors and experts were used according to the stages and objectives of the research. In the qualitative part, an interview was applied to determine and identify the structures of strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities (SWOT) of garlic production in Hamadan province, where the statistical population included local experts and official experts who were aware of the garlic product and its various processes, which were totally 11 people who were purposefully selected by snowball sampling method. But, in quantitative part of the study, aiming to determine the importance of the strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities that identified in the qualitative part, was presented to the heads of farmers’ households. The statistical population included 1272 farmers in Hamadan and Bahar counties, and using Cochran's formula, 233 people were estimated and selected as the statistical sample of the study. Both quantitative and qualitative data and information gathered from the field were analyzed and summarized; then, the presentation of these data and conclusions were made with the help of descriptive statistics and inferential statistics by strategic planning approach. In sum, SWOT analysis and strategic analysis were conducted using SPSS software, SWOT and Quantitative Strategic Planning Matrix (QSPM) models according to the goals.

Based on the obtained results, totally 15 strengths, 23 weaknesses, 17 opportunities and 19 threats were distinguished for garlic value chain in the studied area. The most important priorities in each sector were "suitable climatic conditions for garlic cultivation", "high cost of land and labor rent", "high potential of Hamadan garlic in terms of economy and employment", and "entry of non-specialists to the garlic market", respectively. The study results also showed that according to the points obtained in the matrix of internal factors (2.61 out of 4) and external factors (2.57 out of 4), the appropriate strategy for the development of the garlic value chain in Hamadan province was an aggressive strategy that included strategies such as developing a model of sustainable garlic cultivation, developing research related to production and processing, gaining competitive advantage and attracting new export markets, developing processing industries in line with employment and diversity of products, promoting domestic consumption of the product and creating the necessary platform for investment.

These strategies can perform synergistically and turn the region into a hub for garlic production and processing. Through focusing on improving quality, sustainability and competitiveness, new opportunities can be created in domestic and international markets. Also, the sustainable development of agriculture, preservation of the environment, creation of employment and improvement of the economic situation of the region are among the benefits of implementing these strategies. Finally, paying attention to these strategies can lead to strengthening the local economy, increasing incomes and improving the standard of living of farmers and society as a whole.

Food security is one of the main conditions for realizing national security. In respect to food security, there are some vital elements that have maximal impact on the food supply including obtainability, right to use and stability. Achieving food security in Iran depends on increasing the productivity and efficiency of the country's agricultural sector. In this regard, agricultural cooperatives can play an effective role in improving the productivity of this sector by carefully principled planning for the optimal use of water and soil resources. The objective of agricultural cooperative movement in developing countries is not only to renew old economical methods, but also to create fair economic and social conditions. This study aimed at measuring the technical, VRS-technical and scale efficiency of cooperative companies and investigating knowledge-based indicators on their efficiency. 

In this study, firstly, by applying Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) method and DEAP 2.1 software, technical efficiency of 29 rural production cooperative companies in Mazandaran province of Iran was measured. DEA is an exciting flexible method of assessing relative efficiency among Decision-Making Units (DMUs) using the same technology and in the same or very similar organizational circumstances. One of the reasons that DEA is an important management tool for diagnosis among the DMUs is its ability to provide guidance for how nonefficient units can become more efficient. For this purpose, the full number sampling method was carried out for the concerned cooperatives in 2022. Then, using the econometric model and EViews.10 software, the factors influencing the technical efficiency were extracted. In this study, Tobit regression analysis was also used to measure the relationship between the knowledge-based indicators and the efficiency of production cooperatives among the listed companies of Mazandaran province. The Tobit regression analysis was used rather than Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression because of its nature of censored dependent variable of efficiency for firms. 

The study results showed that 17 percent of the cooperatives had full technical efficiency and there was a difference of 53.3 percent between the efficiency of reference cooperatives and the most inefficient cooperatives; in addition, the knowledge-based variables such as employing Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) with higher education at the head of cooperative companies, increasing communication with scientific centers, universities, science and technology parks, using the Internet and mass communication networks, and using new technology in the production of agricultural crops had significantly positive effects on the efficiency of cooperatives.

Based on the study results, it is suggested that the government provides more financial support to the knowledge-based cooperatives that focus on the role of knowledge in advancing their goals. In addition to financial support, social and economic policy implemented by the government as well as legislation are recognized as one of the main factors influencing the development of cooperatives. Appropriate policy and legal framework are vital for successful agricultural cooperatives. In general, the government can act as a promoter and facilitator by generating policies and programs to support cooperatives, developing adequate infrastructure and social services, and eliminating any barriers to cooperative development. Public policy support can also gain more specific forms. The areas of public policy support may include human resource development, research and management consultancy, accountancy and auditing, information technology, laws and taxation, and relations with the private sector. Finally, the education and training provided by the state before and after establishing a cooperative is of crucial importance.