مجله تحقیقات گیاهان دارویی و معطر ایران
سال چهل و یکم شماره 4 (پیاپی 126، زمستان 1404)

Ziziphora is a medicinal genus belonging to the Lamiaceae family. This genus comprises 18 species worldwide, of which three annual species, including Z. capitata, Z. persica, and Z. tenuior, along with one perennial species (Z. clinopodioides), grow in Iran. Except for Z. persica, the remaining species are distributed across the habitats of Isfahan province. The aerial parts of these plants emit a fragrant aroma during flowering, and today their bioactive compounds are widely used in pharmaceutical formulations to treat cough, heartache, intestinal inflammation, uterine infections, menstrual pain, nausea, and various cardiovascular disorders. Ziziphora essential oil contains valuable constituents, including pulegone and 1,8-cineole, with their proportions differing among species. The objective of this research was to evaluate the quantitative yield and essential oil composition of species within this genus in Isfahan province, and to assess their feasibility for introduction into the country’s agricultural production system.

This study was conducted at the Fozveh Research Station of Isfahan between 2019 and 2020. The species examined included Z. clinopodioides, Z. tenuior, and Z. capitata. Seeds of the annual species were cultivated in February of both 2019 and 2020. The perennial species was sown in February 2019 inside a greenhouse using seedling trays filled with peat moss, and the resulting seedlings were transplanted to the field in April. Plants were established using a randomized complete block design with three replications. Quantitative traits such as plant height and leaf biomass were measured at the flowering stage (defined as more than 70% flowering). Plants within one square meter of each plot were harvested to determine dry biomass, while the remaining plants were retained to measure thousand-seed weight and seed yield. Essential oils were extracted by hydrodistillation using a Clevenger apparatus. Essential oil composition was quantified by gas chromatography (GC), and qualitative identification of compounds was performed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS).

The three Ziziphora species exhibited significant differences in plant height, dry aerial biomass, dry-to-fresh weight ratio of aerial parts, seed weight per plant, thousand-seed weight, leaf and seed yield, and essential oil percentage and yield. The highest plant height (38 cm), leaf yield (3800 kg/ha), and seed yield (95 kg/ha) were recorded in Z. clinopodioides during the second year. Essential oil content among the species ranged from 0.5% to 1.53%, with the highest percentage and yield, 1.53% and 57 kg/ha, respectively, observed in Z. clinopodioides in the second year. Essential oil profiling demonstrated interspecific and interannual differences in both the type and number of identified compounds. Z. clinopodioides presented 17 and 20 compounds in the first and second year, constituting 74.7% and 91.9% of the total essential oil. The 1,8-cineole, reaching 44.5% and 31.6%, was the dominant compound in the first and second years. Camphene (3.4%), sabinene (4.8%), α-terpinene (3.1%), and linalool (3.2%) were also key constituents. In Z. tenuior, 14 and 10 compounds were identified in the first and second years, accounting for 85.6% and 97.5% of the essential oil. The primary compound in both years was pulegone, measured at 64.3% in the first year and 89.5% in the second year. p-Mentha-3-en-8-ol and 1,8-cineole, at 7.6% and 4.9% were the most abundant constituents after pulegone, respectively, in the first year. In Z. capitata, 9 and 7 compounds were detected across the two years, representing 99.4% and 90.5% of the total essential oil. The major constituents in the first year were piperitone (25.3%), thymol (26.3%), and carvacrol (30.1%); however, in the second year, piperitone dominated at 42.2%.

Considering that Ziziphora currently lacks a defined position in the national agricultural system and given the superior quantitative and qualitative performance of Z. clinopodioides compared with the other species, as well as its considerable essential oil yield and valuable chemical constituents, it can be proposed as a promising new candidate for large-scale cultivation and integration into the country’s agricultural production framework.

Fennel is an herbaceous, aromatic, and perennial plant from the Umbelliferae family with the scientific name Foeniculum vulgare L. The height of the plant is about one to two meters. Its stems are erect, cylindrical, branched, and green. This plant is one of the world's most well-known medicinal plants and is considered an important agricultural export product of Iran. The medicinal properties of fennel include improving the digestive system, eliminating hormonal disorders, especially in women, and increasing breastfeeding in mothers. Given the increasing demand for this medicinal plant, improving the quantity and quality of its yield through optimizing agricultural methods, including proper nutrition, is of particular importance. The use of nitrogen fertilizer in combination with organic and biological fertilizers, such as sugarcane compost and biofarm, can improve the growth and yield of fennel. Therefore, the present study was designed and implemented to determine the best type of fertilization and, in fact, the appropriate nutrition for fennel plants in the climate conditions of Khuzestan, in the city of Molasani, 36 km north of Ahvaz, between the Karun River and the Ahvaz-Shushtar road.

This research was conducted in autumn, winter, and spring of 2023-2024 at a farm of Khuzestan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, in the form of split plots in randomized complete blocks with three replications. In the main plots, levels of combining nitrogen fertilizer and sugarcane residue compost include A1: control (no use of nitrogen fertilizer and no use of sugarcane compost), A2: 150 kg/ha pure nitrogen, A3:112.5 kg/ha pure nitrogen + 8 tons/ha of sugarcane compost A4: 75 kg/ha pure nitrogen + 16 tons/ha of sugarcane compost, A5: 37.5 kg/ha pure nitrogen + 24 tons per hectare of sugarcane compost and A6: 32 tons per hectare of pure sugarcane compost were investigated. In the subplots, the seed inoculation treatment with Biofarm biofertilizer, including B0: control (no seed inoculation with Biofarm) and B1: treatment (seed inoculation with Biofarm), was investigated. The measured plant traits included seed yield per field unit, seed yield components, morphological traits, and essential oil percentage and yield per field unit.

The results of the statistical analysis of the data showed that the highest height of the plant in treatment A3 (119.8 cm) and treatment B1 (108.3 cm), the highest number of branches in the plant at the level of treatment A2 by (38.85) numbers, the most The number of umbels per plant at the level of treatment A2 (17/7) and in treatment B1 at the rate of (15/5), the highest number of seeds per umbel corresponding to treatment A3B0 (166/80) of seeds per umbel and without the use of biofertilizer was obtained. On the other hand, the maximum weight of 1,000 seeds in A5B0, A2B1, and A3B0 treatment levels were 3.5, 3.4, and 3.4 grams, respectively, which were not statistically significantly different from each other. In general, the highest seed yield in A4B0 treatment is (998) kg per hectare, the highest percentage of essential oil in A2 treatment is (2.26) percent, and the highest fennel essential oil yield is related to A2B1 treatment level, (22.1) kg. It was per hectare.

According to the results of this research, the application of 75 kg/ha of pure nitrogen and 16 tons/ha of sugarcane compost to increase the yield of fennel seeds and the use of biological fertilizers along with chemical fertilizers (150 kg/ha) increased the yield of fennel seed essential oil. As a result, if the results are repeated and confirmed in subsequent studies, it can be recommended to the manufacturers of this product.

Garden thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) is recognized as one of the most important essential oil-producing and medicinal plants worldwide, and the use of biological fertilizers in its cultivation is considered vital for achieving sustainable agriculture and producing safe medicinal products. Among the key chemical constituents in thyme are phenolic acids, terpenoids, and flavonoids, which are widely used in the treatment of diseases such as diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, and cardiovascular disorders. This experiment aimed to examine the effect of the synchronic application of mycorrhizae, important ecological symbionts that receive carbon and lipids from the host plant and, in return, enhance water uptake and the absorption of rare mineral nutrients, and foliar spraying of wood vinegar on selected quantitative and qualitative traits and nutrient elements of garden thyme shoots.
To investigate the effect of the combined application of mycorrhiza and wood vinegar foliar spraying on the quantitative and qualitative properties and nutrient content of thyme shoots, a factorial experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with three replications at the research farms of Takestan University from 2021 to 2023. The experimental factors included mycorrhiza treatments (control, seed and soil inoculation with G. mosseae, G. etunicatum, and G. intraradices) and wood vinegar treatments (control and foliar spraying at 5, 10, and 15 mg/L). Dry matter yield (determined using a scale with 0.01 g precision), essential oil percentage, chlorophyll index, carotenoid content, flavonoid percentage, phenolic compounds, anthocyanin content, and nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium concentrations in the shoots were measured. All data were analyzed using SAS software (version 9.1.3), and mean comparisons were performed using the least significant difference (LSD) test at the 5% probability level.
The findings indicated that the synchronic use of mycorrhizal fungi and wood vinegar significantly enhanced dry matter yield, essential oil percentage, carotenoid content, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium concentrations, anthocyanin levels, phenolic compounds, flavonoid percentage, and chlorophyll index of garden thyme relative to the control. Moreover, the application of mycorrhiza, particularly the species G. mosseae, resulted in notable improvements in most evaluated traits. In addition, the combined application of 10% wood vinegar and G. mosseae produced the highest quantitative and qualitative attributes of garden thyme. The inoculation treatment with G. mosseae, combined with 10% wood vinegar, produced the greatest concentrations of phosphorus and potassium in the shoots, representing increases of 133% and 231%, respectively, compared to the control. Furthermore, this combined treatment yielded the highest anthocyanin, phenolic compound content, and flavonoid percentage, with increases of 140%, 97%, and 107%, respectively, over the control.
Overall, it can be concluded that, in alignment with the principles of sustainable agriculture, the synchronic use of mycorrhizal fungi, especially G. mosseae, together with foliar application of 10 mg/L wood vinegar, constitutes an effective approach for achieving maximum quantitative and qualitative yield in garden thyme. This strategy not only enhances essential agronomic and biochemical traits but also reduces reliance on chemical fertilizers, thereby contributing to the production of healthier and more environmentally sustainable plant products.

Genetic selection based on high growth rates and slaughter weights in broiler chickens has created numerous challenges for broiler breeders. A negative correlation between growth-related and reproductive traits has resulted in reduced fertility, particularly among male broiler breeders. Consequently, the fertility percentage in meat-type poultry has declined, accompanied by physiological disorders such as reduced sexual desire, decreased mating frequency, and diminished sperm production in these birds. Therefore, the objective of this research is to determine the efficient levels of ginseng (G) and Tribulus terrestris (Tt), as well as to investigate the synergistic effects of these two compounds in the diets of broiler breeders over 40 weeks of age, with emphasis on evaluating sperm quantity and quality and assessing any possible related effects.

The field phase of this study was carried out from February 2023 to July 2023 at the Poultry Research Farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modares University. Thirty-two Arian strain roosters, aged 57 weeks, were randomly assigned to four groups (eight birds per treatment) and were fed a daily basal diet supplemented with different levels of G and Tt, including: 1) basal diet without additives (control); 2) 300 mg G powder/kg diet; 3) 150 mg G powder/kg diet + 190 mg Tt extract/kg diet; and 4) 380 mg Tt extract/kg diet. The roosters received these diets from week 57 to week 70, making the experiment duration 13 weeks. Birds were housed individually in cages equipped with an automatic exposure system under a photoperiod of 14 hours light and 10 hours darkness. Temperature and feeding conditions were regulated according to the Arian (Hybro) breeder management manual, and water was supplied ad libitum. To facilitate semen collection, samples were obtained weekly through abdominal massage. Sperm volume, viability, membrane integrity, concentration, and motility characteristics were evaluated using CASA software.

Semen volume, sperm concentration, and survival percentage were not significantly affected by the experimental treatments (G, Tt, G + Tt) and showed no statistical significance (P > 0.05). However, sperm membrane integrity was significantly influenced by the treatments (P < 0.05). The highest percentage of membrane integrity was observed in the combined G + Tt treatment, which differed significantly from the other treatments, except for the G treatment (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the effects of different levels of G and Tt on sperm motility indicated that progressive motility, non-motile sperm, and overall motility were significantly affected by the treatments (P < 0.05). The highest percentage of motile sperm was recorded in the G treatment, which was significantly different from the other treatments except the control (P < 0.05). Conversely, the highest percentage of non-motile sperm was observed in the Tt treatment, which differed significantly from the other treatments, excluding the control group (P < 0.05). Other recorded motility parameters were not significantly influenced by the experimental treatments (P > 0.05).

Based on the results of this experiment, it can be concluded that the combined supplementation of these two medicinal plants (G + Tt) exerted positive effects on reproductive parameters, including improvements in sperm quantity and quality, enhancement of sperm membrane integrity, better motility characteristics, and increased fertility in the roosters.

Satureja bachtiarica belongs to the Lamiaceae family and contains valuable compounds such as thymol, p-cymene, and carvacrol. Sixteen aromatic plant species of the genus Satureja grow in Iran. In this study, different ecotypes of S. bachtiarica were collected from Ilam, Kermanshah, Kurdistan, and West Azerbaijan provinces. Since ecological and environmental factors influence the quantity and quality of phytochemical compounds in aromatic plants, this research investigated and compared the phytochemical composition and antioxidant properties of S. bachtiarica essential oil across different habitats.
Samples were collected during the flowering season from various habitats with distinct ecological conditions in the provinces of Ilam, Kermanshah, Kurdistan, and West Azerbaijan. Dried plant powder was used for extraction and essential oil isolation. Total phenol, flavonoid content, total antioxidant capacity, and DPPH radical scavenging capacity were measured using spectrophotometric methods. Essential oil was extracted by hydrodistillation, and both quantitative and qualitative analyses of the essential oil were conducted using gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS).
The data showed that extracts of samples collected from Baneh and Gilan-e-Gharb had the highest and lowest phenolic content (4.648 and 2.034 mg gallic acid/g dry weight) and flavonoid content (0.164 and 0.090 mg quercetin/g dry weight), respectively. Likewise, the highest and lowest antioxidant activity were recorded in the Baneh (42.67%) and Gilan-e-Gharb (27.06%) samples, respectively. The strongest DPPH radical scavenging capacity (percentage inhibition) was observed in samples from Baneh (43.16%), while the weakest was found in samples from Gilan-e-Gharb (31.87%). A significant positive correlation (r > 0.9) at the 1% probability level was detected between total phenol content and both antioxidant capacity and DPPH radical scavenging capacity, as well as between antioxidant capacity and DPPH radical scavenging capacity. A significant positive correlation (r > 0.875) at the 1% probability level was also observed between total flavonoid content and both antioxidant capacity and DPPH radical scavenging capacity, in addition to a significant correlation between total phenol and total flavonoid content. The main constituents of S. bachtiarica essential oil included thymol, p-cymene, and gamma-terpinene, with their levels varying by region. Comparison of essential oil components in the studied habitats indicated that thymol (28.8-42.78%) was the dominant compound in four of the habitats, whereas p-cymene (35.2%) was the major constituent in the Miandoab habitat. Correlation analysis revealed a negative and significant relationship between thymol (the principal essential oil component) and total flavonoid content, antioxidant capacity, and DPPH radical scavenging capacity. Although thymol also showed a negative correlation with total phenol content, this correlation was not significant. The highest and lowest essential oil yields were observed in samples collected from Miandoab (2.75%) and Baneh (0.87%), respectively.
The findings demonstrated that the principal components of S. bachtiarica essential oil collected from regions with varying ecological conditions include thymol, p-cymene, and gamma-terpinene, with their levels differing across habitats. Overall, essential oil yield and the quantitative and qualitative composition of essential oil constituents depend on ecological and environmental factors, which play a crucial role in shaping the phytochemical characteristics of aromatic plants.

Color is one of the most important factors in determining the quality of tea, and it is directly influenced by the vegetative and environmental conditions of the plant, including rainfall, fertilizers, and light. Light, as one of the key environmental variables, serves as the primary factor influencing plant color by providing the energy necessary to regulate plant growth. Tea is a shade-loving plant, and reduced light can enhance the quality of the tea beverage by decreasing or slowing the formation of photosynthetic inhibitors. Consequently, the use of various tea plant shading methods to produce high-quality and high-value green tea is increasing in tea-growing regions worldwide.
This research aims to investigate the effects of nitrogen fertilizer and light intensity on the quality of green tea leaves. The experiment was conducted as a split-plot in time within a CRBD design, with treatments including: (1) unshaded plants + 250 kg/ha of urea; (2) unshaded plants + 500 kg/ha of urea; (3) 50% shading + 250 kg/ha of urea; (4) 50% shading + 500 kg/ha of urea; (5) 90% shading + 250 kg/ha of urea; and (6) 90% shading + 500 kg/ha of urea, implemented in three replications. Each replication measured 6 × 0.7 meters, and shading was applied during the spring and summer harvests. Greenhouse shade nets of 50% and 90% density were used as covers. The nets were placed over the bushes for three weeks, ensuring that the sides were also fully covered and secured with rope. After the designated period, the shades were removed, and leaf picking was performed. In each harvest, yield (one bud and two leaves) and yield components, including shoot density and weight, chlorophyll content, concentrations of N, P, and K nutrients, and several biochemical characteristics, were measured in the harvested green leaves.
Using 50% shade with 500 kg of urea increased the yield of green leaves by 14.8% compared to unshaded conditions, while the lowest yield was recorded in Treatment 1. Application of 50% shade had a significant positive effect on green leaf yield relative to unshaded conditions, whereas 90% shade did not produce a positive yield response. The use of 50% shading increased the number of harvestable shoots by 35.3% compared to unshaded plants, with the lowest shoot number observed in unshaded bushes receiving 250 kg of urea. The treatments also had a significant effect on nitrogen concentration in green tea leaves. The highest nitrogen concentration was in Treatment 4, which differed significantly from unshaded treatments and from 90% shade with 500 kg of urea. The lowest nitrogen concentration was found under 90% shade with 500 kg of urea, which did not differ significantly from the unshaded treatments. The highest chlorophyll content and water extract values (37%, 0.68) were observed in Treatment 6, representing increases of 37.2% and 29.27%, respectively, compared to the unshaded treatment with the same fertilizer level. Overall, the results indicate that 50% shading combined with urea has a more positive effect on green leaf yield, whereas 90% shading with urea application exerts a greater influence on quality characteristics, particularly leaf chlorophyll content.
The results demonstrated that the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of green tea leaves are strongly influenced by changes in light availability. Given the simplicity and practicality of installing greenhouse shade nets compared to establishing different canopy trees in existing tea gardens, and based on the findings of this study, it can be concluded that 50% shade combined with nitrogen fertilizer exerts a more favorable impact on green leaf yield. However, 90% shade and nitrogen fertilizer have a superior effect on the quality attributes of green leaves, especially chlorophyll content. Therefore, considering the intended purpose of tea production, it can be suggested that 50% and 90% shade nets are more suitable for producing black tea and green tea, respectively.

Cumin, as a medicinal and spice plant, holds a special position in the agricultural systems of arid and semi-arid regions, including Iran. Despite the high potential of cumin, its cultivation faces serious challenges that can limit its production and overall productivity. Although this plant is adapted to relatively arid conditions, it is highly affected by environmental stresses, particularly water deficit stress. A precise understanding of cumin’s response to water deficit stress and identifying efficient approaches to enhance its tolerance are essential for the sustainable development of cumin cultivation in vulnerable regions. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the effects of irrigation levels, humic acid, wheat gluten protein, and Bacillus bacteria on the medicinal plant cumin.

An experiment was conducted over two consecutive crop years, 2021-2022 and 2022-2023, at the research farm of the University of Gonabad. The experimental design was a split-plot arrangement in time based on a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Three irrigation levels-full irrigation (50% evaporation from the evaporation pan in mm), low irrigation (70% evaporation from the evaporation pan in mm), and rainfed irrigation- were assigned to the main plots. Foliar application of humic acid, wheat gluten protein, application of Bacillus bacterium, and a control (no supplemental input) were assigned to the subplots. In both growing seasons, data were recorded at the end of the period, at the onset of seed ripening, and at the drying of the plant’s aerial parts. From each plot, five plants were randomly selected from the middle rows to measure various morphological and yield-related traits, including plant height, number of branches per plant, leaf and stem weight, root weight and length, leaf weight, number of umbels and umbellets per plant, seed number and seed weight per plant, and 1000-seed weight. For biochemical and essential oil analysis, seeds were shade-dried under ambient conditions after harvest. Once dried, the essential oils were extracted from the samples using standard procedures. Experimental data were analyzed using SAS version 9.4, and treatment means were compared using Duncan’s multiple range test.

Application of all evaluated eco-friendly inputs increased plant height, branch number per plant, and leaf and stem weight compared to the control treatment. Under low irrigation conditions, application of Bacillus and humic acid resulted in a 44% and 49% increase in stem weight per plant, respectively, compared to the control. Foliar application of wheat gluten protein under rainfed conditions increased the number of umbels per plant by 41% compared to the control. Seed weight per plant under low irrigation increased by 49% and 52% following the application of Bacillus and humic acid, respectively, compared to the control treatment. The highest amount of γ-Terpinene-7-al (21.35%) was obtained under humic acid foliar application, and foliar application of protein under full irrigation increased p-cymene content by 28% compared to its application under rainfed conditions.

Overall, the findings of this study indicate that under optimal irrigation conditions (50% evaporation from a Class A pan), the highest quantitative and qualitative yields of cumin can be achieved. Otherwise, low-irrigation regimes are recommended over rainfed irrigation. The results also demonstrated that the use of eco-friendly inputs under drought stress conditions was effective in reducing losses associated with water deficit stress.

The increasing attention to the adverse effects of chemical pharmaceuticals, compared with the relatively fewer side effects of organic herbal medications, has sparked interest in the cultivation of medicinal plants. Low soil fertility, resulting from continuous chemical fertilizer application, has become a major challenge to the sustainable agricultural production of medicinal plants. The complementary application of zeolite, organic, and biological fertilizers represents an effective fertilizer management strategy and a practical approach to reduce dependency on chemical fertilizers.
To evaluate the effects of biological, zeolite, organic, and chemical fertilizers under different irrigation regimes on the yield, yield components, and physiological traits of Dragon's Head (Lallemantia iberica), a split-plot experiment based on a randomized complete block design with three replications was conducted under the climatic conditions of Urmia (37°44ʹ E, 45°10ʹ N, 1320 m elevation) during the 2016-2017 growing seasons. The main factor consisted of three irrigation levels (75%, 50%, and 30% of field water capacity, FWC), and the subplots included twelve fertilizer treatments: control (without fertilizer, F1), Glomus intraradices (F2), vermicompost (F3), NPK (F4), zeolite (F5), mycorrhiza + vermicompost (F6), vermicompost + NPK (F7), mycorrhiza + zeolite (F8), mycorrhiza + NPK (F9), zeolite + vermicompost (F10), zeolite + NPK (F11), and mycorrhiza + vermicompost + zeolite (F12). Data were analyzed using SAS 9.2, and mean comparisons were performed using the LSD test at P ≥ 0.05.
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that different irrigation regimes, fertilizer treatments, and their interactions significantly affected plant height, number of branches, plant fresh weight, plant dry weight, flower weight, number of nut goals per cycle, number of seeds per flower cycle, number of flower rotations per plant, inflorescence length, 1000-seed weight, seed yield, biological yield, relative leaf water content (RWC), chlorophyll index (SPAD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), and proline content in Dragon's Head. Antioxidant enzyme activities, including APX and SOD, as well as compounds such as proline and MDA, increased significantly under enhanced water stress. Conversely, yield, yield components, chlorophyll index, and RWC decreased significantly under water deficit. The highest grain yield, biological yield, 1000-grain weight, number of flower rotations per plant, number of nut goals per cycle, number of seeds per flower cycle, flower weight, inflorescence length, plant dry weight, plant fresh weight, number of lateral branches, plant height, chlorophyll index, and RWC were observed in the treatment irrigated at 70% FWC combined with mycorrhiza + vermicompost + zeolite (F12). The greatest MDA and proline levels were observed in the treatment irrigated at 30% FWC combined with mycorrhiza + zeolite (F8). This integrated treatment not only produced a satisfactory yield but also substantially reduced chemical fertilizer use, representing a step toward healthy production and sustainable agriculture. Vermicompost, mycorrhiza, and zeolite treatments outperformed the control and chemical fertilizer treatments in yield.
The results indicate that integrated fertilizer application, particularly the triple combination of mycorrhiza, vermicompost, and zeolite under different irrigation regimes, can enhance the yield and yield components of Dragon's Head while reducing chemical fertilizer use, thereby contributing to sustainable agricultural production.

Eryngium billardieri, known as “Zul” or “Boghnagh,” and Eryngium caucasicum, known as “Chuchagh,” are two important species among the 11 known species of the Eryngium genus in Iran. Plants of this genus are used to produce hydrosol, which is claimed to reduce blood glucose levels. Although the essential oil content of these species is relatively low, their diversity of volatile compounds is high. The aim of this study, consistent with previous research, is to investigate the water-soluble and water-insoluble volatile compounds of these two species. During hydrosol extraction from these plants, known as "Aragh-e Boghnagh," volatile compounds are transferred into the water; therefore, identifying water-soluble and water-insoluble volatile compounds is crucial for understanding the chemical composition of these species.

In this study, E. billardieri (Zul or Boghnagh) was collected from three locations: Ganjname (GN, Hamedan province), Lardam (DL, Damavand, Tehran province), and Razghan (RZ), and E. caucasicum (Chuchagh) from Bojaq (BO) National Park (Gilan province) and Abr village (RA, Semnan province) at altitudes of 2800, 2450, 1750, -11, and 2056 m above sea level, respectively. Shade-dried plant materials were subjected to hydrodistillation using a Clevenger-type apparatus. Essential oil content was calculated on a weight/weight (%) basis. After essential oil extraction, 100 ml of hydrosol was collected for fractionation using 100 ml ethyl acetate, performed in three replicates. The percentage of the organic fraction was calculated as weight/volume (grams per 100 ml of hydrosol). Essential oil composition was analyzed using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and quantified by GC-FID.

The essential oil yields for all samples were 0.15%, 0.11%, 0.37%, 0.10%, and 0.12% w/w for GN, DL, RZ, BO, and RA, respectively. The main components of E. billardieri essential oils were 2,3,6-trimethylbenzaldehyde (18.8%, 16.8%, 12.3%), sesquicineole (31.3%, 28.8%, 40.5%), and β-bisabolenal (9.2%, 13.8%, 7.3%) for GN, DL, and RZ, respectively. The main components of E. caucasicum essential oils were trans-caryophyllene (20.3% and 26.5%), β-bisabolene (7.4% and 9.8%), β-sesquiphellandrene (30.1% and 20.2%), and cis-falcarinol (16.6% and 23.2%) for RA and BO, respectively. The yields of ethyl acetate fractions were 0.031, 0.012, 0.023, 0.024, and 0.008 g per 100 ml of hydrosol for Of-GN, Of-DL, Of-RZ, Of-BO, and Of-RA, respectively. The main components of these fractions were 2,3,6-trimethylbenzaldehyde (45.5%, 30.2%, 22.9%), sesquicineole (12.0%, 8.1%, 14.6%), 3-methyl-2(5H)-furanone (9.1%, 12.4%, 17.8%), and p-vinyl-guaiacol (11.4%, 14.6%, 12.3%) for Of-GN, Of-DL, and Of-RZ, respectively. For Of-RA and Of-BO, the main components were 3-methyl-2(5H)-furanone (6.7% and 21.8%), trans-β-ocimene (7.8% and 16.8%), p-vinyl-guaiacol (15.2% and 11.6%), and caryophyllene oxide (23.7% and 14.8%), respectively.

By identifying water-soluble and water-insoluble volatile compounds, the relationships between these compounds were clarified. In the fractions of both species, p-vinyl-guaiacol and 3-methyl-2(5H)-furanone were the main compounds, which were not detected even in trace amounts in the essential oils. Additionally, 2,3,6-trimethylbenzaldehyde was observed in the essential oil and organic fractions of both species, with higher content in E. billardieri than in E. caucasicum. Moreover, 2,3,4-trimethylbenzaldehyde was in both the essential oil and organic fraction of E. caucasicum hydrosol but only in the essential oil of E. billardieri.

Climatic diversity in Iran allows the cultivation of a wide range of medicinal plants, and the medicinal plant industry offers significant opportunities for both domestic use and export. The type of plant cultivated, the cultivated area, ecological conditions, and economic importance all influence the quality and quantity of medicinal plant products. Caraway-seed (Elwendia persica) is particularly important in crop rotation systems in dry and semi-dry regions due to its low water requirements, high export value, and its role in generating employment in the agricultural sector. Caraway-seed exhibits several medicinal properties, including treatment of stomach ulcers, fever reduction, lowering of blood lipids and cholesterol, anti-allergic effects, and reduction of blood sugar levels. Its essential oil also possesses antioxidant properties and is widely used as a flavoring agent in foods, chocolate, and cheese. Considering its low water requirements and economic and medicinal significance, this research aims to identify regions within Yazd Province suitable for Caraway-seed cultivation to support agricultural planning and optimize crop production.

Yazd Province lies between 33°22' and 36°29' northern latitude and 48°52' and 56°36' eastern longitude, covering approximately 7.9% of Iran’s total area. It is located in the central, dry, and low-rainfall region of the country, bordered to the north by Semnan Province, to the west and northwest by Isfahan Province, to the east by Razavi Khorasan and South Khorasan provinces, to the southeast by Kerman Province, and to the southwest by Fars Province. In this study, suitable ecological conditions for Caraway-seed growth were first determined through scientific literature review, library research, and habitat assessment. Next, thematic maps were generated based on the collected environmental and meteorological data. Potential habitats for Caraway-seed were identified by integrating these datasets within a Geographic Information System (GIS) framework. Soil properties considered included pH, electrical conductivity, and soil saturation percentage. Meteorological variables included wind speed, maximum and minimum temperatures, average temperature, atmospheric pressure at sea level, relative humidity (maximum and minimum), sunshine hours, average dry and wet temperatures, precipitation, snowfall, evaporation, and transpiration. Absolute maximum and minimum temperatures were also included. Effective biophysical parameters, including slope, slope direction, and elevation, were derived from a 1:25,000 scale Digital Elevation Model (DEM). Finally, GIS maps for each parameter relevant to Caraway-seed growth were generated and analyzed to identify suitable cultivation areas.

The study indicated that altitude posed the greatest limitation for Caraway-seed cultivation, as the lowest eligible growth areas were observed at higher elevations. In contrast, minimum temperature was favorable for cultivation across nearly the entire province, whereas maximum temperature presented challenges in lowland regions. Integration of all maps revealed that approximately 1,528,560 hectares of Yazd Province are suitable for Caraway-seed cultivation, while 5,791,940 hectares are unsuitable due to environmental and climatic limitations.

Extensive low-elevation plains, widespread saline soils in low-lying areas, and the hot, dry climate of Yazd Province make environmental and climatic factors the primary constraints for Caraway-seed cultivation. Consequently, cultivation potential is largely restricted to elevated lands, which offer favorable conditions regarding temperature, soil quality, water salinity, and rainfall. The integrated map generated in this study indicates that approximately 26.3% of the central and western regions have suitable conditions for Caraway-seed cultivation. However, local assessments are recommended to validate these findings and ensure the successful establishment and growth of this economically and medicinally valuable crop.

Alcea koelzii, a species within the genus Alcea and a member of the Malvaceae family, possesses a wide range of biological properties, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-estrogenic, enzyme-inhibitory, and immunomodulatory activities, due to its diverse array of bioactive compounds. These constituents include flavonoids, phenolic acids, coumarins, triterpenes, alkaloids, acidic polysaccharides (mucilage), pectins, scopoletin, asparagine, tannins, steroids, proteins, and various minerals. Considering the significance of marshmallow as a native plant species and its recognized value in the pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic, and health industries, the domestication of A. koelzii, the development of uniform high-quality cultivars, and the establishment of extensive cultivation systems are important and necessary. Accordingly, this study aimed to examine the diversity of functional, morphological, and phytochemical traits-particularly anthocyanin, mucilage, and phenolic compound contents-among different A. koelzii populations as an initial step toward the cultivation and domestication of this species. To assess morphological, functional, and phytochemical characteristics, multiple A. koelzii populations were collected from natural habitats during the summer of 2024. Plants were harvested at full flowering to standardize the evaluation of the target indicators. Morphological and functional traits, including plant height, number of lateral branches, flower diameter, number of flowers, and flower dry weight per plant, were measured. Phytochemical attributes, comprising total phenolic content, total flavonoids, antioxidant activity, anthocyanin content, mucilage, and carbohydrate content, were also quantified. Phenolic compounds were analyzed using High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). All experiments were performed with five replicates, and results are reported as means ± standard deviation (SD). One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed by SAS 9.4 to examine significant variation among populations, followed by Duncan’s multiple range test at p < 0.05. A biplot was produced using Origin 2022, and cluster analysis was conducted via the Euclidean distance coefficient and Ward’s method. Correlation analysis was completed using R software. The highest coefficients of variation were observed for rutin (223.37%), chlorogenic acid (195.91%), antioxidant activity (113.20%), and flower dry weight per plant (78.07%). The TAR population exhibited the highest flower dry weight (1105.14 g/plant), while the SIL population showed the lowest (672.38 g/plant). The ZAN (27.35%) and SIL (23.34%) populations demonstrated the highest mucilage contents. Anthocyanin concentration varied from 1.86 mg cyanidin-3-O-glucoside/g dry weight in ZAN to 3.72 mg/g in QOR. The SIL population contained the highest levels of total phenols (29.72 mg gallic acid/g dry weight) and total flavonoids (16.84 mg rutin/g dry weight). Total carbohydrate content ranged from 30.73% to 53.41%, with BAN exhibiting the highest and HAS the lowest values. HPLC analysis identified rutin, chlorogenic acid, kaempferol, and apigenin as predominant phenolic compounds across populations. The findings of this study demonstrate substantial genetic diversity among A. koelzii populations in relation to morphological and phytochemical characteristics. The pronounced variability observed across key parameters underscores the strong potential of these populations for selection and utilization in breeding, cultivation, and production programs. These results support the broader goals of domestication and the commercial development of this valuable medicinal species.