فصلنامه روش شناسی علوم انسانی
پیاپی 124 (پاییز 1404)

 In pre-modern Europe, the daily rhythm of life was often punctuated by various public spectacles. The term “spectacle” (derived from the Latin specto, meaning “to look at”) refers to any carefully orchestrated or arranged display, typically of a public nature and often on a grand scale. Such events, whether performances or exhibitions, are designed to captivate the audience—essentially, they are visual phenomena, or performances created primarily for the purpose of being seen. Spectacles serve as public demonstrations of a society’s core values and symbols, providing a window into its cultural and emotional life.The significance of a spectacle lies in its ability to reflect elements that are central to the collective identity of the audience. The more these elements resonate with the public’s values, the more impactful the spectacle becomes. While spectacles share some characteristics with theatre, such as the necessity of an audience, they differ in terms of their focus. Spectacles prioritize visual stimuli and symbolic codes, offering a more immediate, sensory experience, whereas theatre typically emphasizes narrative and performance. In essence, spectacles are crafted to be seen, not just understood.In each of Foucault’s historical trilogies—The History of Madness (1961), The Birth of the Clinic (1963), and Discipline and Punish (1975)—he dedicates chapters to exploring pre-modern perceptions of madness, punishment, torture, and illness. In both The History of Madness and Discipline and Punish, Foucault places particular emphasis on the “spectacle” of madness and torture, events that were central to the public consciousness during the Renaissance and the Classical era. Through these analyses, he seeks to understand how people in those periods experienced and interpreted madness and torture. Thus, the depiction of these spectacles plays a crucial role in Foucault’s methodological approach in these works.In The History of Madness, Foucault examines the concept of madness in the pre-modern era, arguing that the “spectacle” of madness—from the Middle Ages through the Classical era—was a deeply ingrained tradition. He explores how madness was perceived in various ways, emphasizing that one prevalent view in the 17th century was that the insane were treated as if they were animals. The insane asylum, Foucault suggests, functioned like a public zoo, where spectators would come to observe the mentally ill. In these settings, the insane were often subjected to cruel treatment, including being forced to dance or perform like circus animals, sometimes through the use of whips. In this way, the “spectacle” of madness became a form of public entertainment, meant to amuse and astonish the crowd.Foucault argues that, in this context, madness became reduced to mere spectacle, transforming the mad into objects of observation and contemplation. The mad individuals were cast as the performers in a spectacle for the entertainment of the sane. The act of observing them, however, had a unique characteristic: it did not fundamentally engage with the madman as a person. Instead, the focus remained on their outward appearance and perceived animalistic behavior, which were framed as the primary features of the spectacle. The observation of madness in these public performances had two key aspects:First, just as watching animals in a cage or circus is limited to observing their outward appearance and movements, observing the mad was similarly restricted to the surface level. The goal was not to understand or heal the mad; rather, it was to watch their intensified movements and actions as part of the spectacle. The observation was, in essence, a form of passive entertainment.Second, the spectators’ engagement with the mad also carried a reflective quality. By watching the mad perform, the sane were reminded that they, too, might one day face the same fate. In this way, the madman served as a mirror, reflecting the fragile boundary between sanity and madness. The spectacle, then, was not just a passive observation but a subtle reminder of the possibility that anyone might fall victim to madness at any time. It was, in a sense, a cautionary lesson that reinforced the precariousness of the human condition.Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, Foucault begins with a structure reminiscent of a play, unfolding in two episodes. The first episode depicts a brutal public torture in the sixteenth century, while the second contrasts this with a day in a modern prison. In the first episode, Foucault provides a detailed account of the torture of Damien, who was punished for the crime of attempting to assassinate the king. He describes how Damien’s mutilated, dismembered, and scarred body was put on public display, underscoring how torture in the premodern period functioned as a spectacle. This spectacle, Foucault argues, not only marked the victim but also showcased the power of the authority inflicting the punishment.In contrast, The Birth of the Clinic does not address the concept of spectacle. Instead, this book focuses on the transition from humoral medicine to modern clinical medicine. In the early chapters, Foucault explores the concepts of illness, diagnosis, and treatment in the context of humoral medicine. Later, he examines how, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, physicians adopted an empirical approach, seeking to locate diseases in the body’s physical lesions by conducting dissections. Foucault asserts that while anatomy was studied in the premodern period, there was no connection between anatomical knowledge and the pathology of diseases within the framework of humoral medicine.Although The Birth of the Clinic could have begun with a “spectacle” of dissection, much like the other two books in Foucault’s historical trilogy, it does not. One such spectacle that could have been included is the “theatre of public anatomy,” which was common in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. Sponsored by universities, municipalities, the government, and the church, these public dissections attracted not only physicians and medical students but also laypeople, who could attend for a fee. However, Foucault chooses not to emphasize this event, which was occasionally held several times a year.Had Foucault chosen to begin The Birth of the Clinic with the theatre of public anatomy, it would have aligned with his method of narrating the premodern period through the description of spectacles, as seen in The History of Madness and Discipline and Punish. In this article, we aim to highlight Foucault’s method in these two books and explore how the spectacle of dissection might have contributed to understanding the premodern perception of anatomy and dissection. We will examine the nature of the theatre of public anatomy to show how, had it been included in the early chapters of The Birth of the Clinic, it could have presented a theatrical narrative of premodern medical perceptions. This would have allowed readers to better understand how, prior to the development of modern medicine in the nineteenth century, the practice of anatomy and dissection was performed publicly and legally, yet had little impact on the pathology of diseases as understood in humoral medicine—an idea that often lingers in the reader’s mind while engaging with the text.

 Adam Smith, the founder of the classical orthodox school, authored two enduring works: The Wealth of Nations (1776) and The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Despite the importance of both, economists and educational systems in economics have predominantly focused on The Wealth of Nations, while the latter—addressing the moral, philosophical, psychological, and legal foundations of human behavior—has received far less attention. This neglect has led to the omission of key concepts such as sympathy, altruism, impartiality, and justice from economic education and practice, though these could form the very basis of human decision-making and action.Amartya Sen’s introduction to the classic edition of The Theory of Moral Sentiments centers on the place of moral feelings in Smith’s economic, moral, and political thought, raising four key themes: rationality, the plurality of human motivations, the integration of ethics and economics, and the role of institutions and the free market. Sen defends the coherence between Smith’s two major works, arguing that perceived contradictions stem from neglecting Smith’s moral foundations. We argue that if The Wealth of Nations had been written explicitly upon the moral framework established in this earlier work, many of the shortcomings and criticisms directed at it as the cornerstone of modern economics might never have arisen.This study aims to critically analyze the perspectives of Amartya Sen and Adam Smith and to reveal the shared methodological error underlying major schools of economic thought over the past two centuries—an error rooted in faulty assumptions about human nature. The study’s theoretical framework focuses on Smith’s key moral concepts such as virtue, justice, sympathy, and impartiality, providing a basis for rethinking the relationship between ethics and economics. This rethinking is not only essential for reforming economics education but could also redirect economic policymaking toward justice, sustainability, and genuine independence. Moreover, revisiting these concepts could help develop contextually adapted models consistent with societies’ cultural and moral values.Methodologically, this research employs documentary and comparative analysis. The two major works of Smith—The Wealth of Nations and The Theory of Moral Sentiments—were examined directly through the original texts and reliable translations. This included structural analysis, identification of key concepts, and comparison of their application across the two works. Sen’s introduction served as a primary source for extracting his four analytical themes, which were then compared with Smith’s content. Furthermore, the shared methodological error across various schools of economic thought—from classical and neoclassical to Austrian, German historical, institutionalist, and Marxist—was identified and critiqued. This error largely stems from misunderstanding human nature and will, and neglecting the moral capacities of human beings. Complementary sources such as works by Commons, Veblen, Mitchell, and North, as well as relevant philosophical and religious texts, were consulted. Analyses were conducted within a five-dimensional framework (philosophical, psychological, methodological, legal, and ethical) to systematically reveal the interrelation between economic theory and its moral underpinnings. This approach enabled not only a critique of Sen’s interpretations but also a reconstruction of the genuine moral foundation in Smith’s economic thought. Comparative analysis of historical and contemporary examples was also undertaken to examine the practical applications of these concepts in economic policymaking. Countries that have achieved sustainable growth by relying on moral principles and effective institutions were studied, illustrating that the integration of morality and economics is not only possible but demonstrably effective.Findings reveal that contrary to popular belief, Smith’s two works are not contradictory but rather profoundly coherent: The Wealth of Nations, in its entirety, aligns with the moral foundations of The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Smith emphasizes the necessity of justice and rule of law even in the absence of benevolent virtues and defines impartiality as a fundamental marker of human identity. Comparison of Sen’s four analytical pillars with Smith’s works indicates that neglecting the plurality of human motivations and reducing rationality to mere profit-seeking has led to distortions in economic teaching and policymaking. Furthermore, both historical and contemporary evidence—including the experience of East Asian economies—demonstrate that adherence to Smith’s moral principles can foster economic independence and sustainable welfare. The critique of methodological errors among economic schools further shows that flawed assumptions about human nature have resulted in Darwinian and materialist tendencies that ignore human moral and volitional capacities. These findings underscore the pressing need to revisit the moral foundations of economics and to re-establish an ethics-centered theoretical framework. Empirical analysis confirms that integrating moral principles into policy design can reduce inequality, increase social trust, and promote economic sustainability. Altogether, these results provide strong evidence for re-examining economics education and practice, suggesting that morality can serve as a lasting competitive advantage in the global economy.The study concludes that returning to the ethical foundations advocated by Smith—particularly the virtues of justice, empathy, and impartiality—can provide a coherent framework for reforming both economic education and practice. Such a reform requires revisiting the fundamental assumptions of economic schools and embracing a more elevated conception of rationality aimed at enhancing human dignity and achieving social justice. Neglect of these principles has not only led to ineffective economic policies but also to the erosion of human identity and structural dependency. It is recommended that economics curricula, especially at the graduate level, incorporate the moral-philosophical dimensions of Smith’s original works and other thinkers who engage deeply with ethical foundations rather than superficial analysis, in order to rebuild economics upon sound moral bases. Likewise, policymakers should learn from countries that have achieved economic independence by integrating moral principles and efficient institutions. Through such methodological reorientation, divine moral principles can serve as the foundation for constructing resilient economies. Ultimately, the study emphasizes that economic development cannot be reformed without reconnecting ethics and economics—this reassessment is both a scientific and practical necessity for the future of the discipline. Such a reconnection can yield an economic system that is not only efficient but also just and humane—one capable of greater resilience in the face of social and economic crises and more conducive to sustainable development. Moreover, a return to ethical principles can rebuild public trust in economic institutions and strengthen social capital. The authors express gratitude to the professors and researchers whose critiques and suggestions enriched this study.

 The concept of objectivity in science, particularly within the Social Sciences and Humanities (SSH), is often regarded as self-evident across vari- ous scientific paradigms. However, its interpretation has evolved significantly throughout the history of science, reflecting diverse epistemological approaches and frameworks. In this context, objectivity is not a singular, fixed concept but one that varies accord- ing to the specific criteria of each scientific paradigm. Epistemologically, each scientific framework follows a process that moves from a “system of intellectual and theoretical constructs” to the “objective world,” thus providing a pathway from intellectual objects to the external objective reality through modeling. Alfred Schutz raises a crucial question in the methodology of social sciences: “How is it possible to form objective concepts and testable theories from the structures of mental meanings” This question underscores the enduring pursuit of objectivity within scien-tific disciplines, which every paradigm aims to achieve in its unique way. The quest for objectivity is central to scientific inquiry, particularly in the SSH, where it has often been modeled after the natural sciences. Over the last few centuries, a dominant approach to establishing objectivity in SSH has sought to mirror the methods of the natural sciences. In this view, observation serves as the primary criterion for objectivity. Researchers are expected to rely on their sensory organs, trusting their observations without prejudice. Furthermore, empirical data are seen as objective and intersubjective, meaning that dif- ferent individuals, regardless of their theoretical backgrounds, should perceive the data in the same way. In the positivist framework, human actions are understood as being determined by the environment, particularly the natural world, and this determination occurs through the passive, nature-affected aspects of human beings. In this way, the sub- ject matter of SSH is framed as natural causes that shape human behavior, much like the natural sciences deal with nature’s causes. An alternative approach within SSH, which contrasts with the naturalistic paradigm, fo- cuses on the unity of the human psyche to establish objectivity. This movement aims to demonstrate that SSH can be as objective, valid, and reliable as the natural sciences. In the early stages of hermeneutics, thinkers like Wilhelm Dilthey sought to develop methods that could objectify the human sciences. Dilthey’s philosophy emphasized the critique of historical reason and the need to understand human life through shared human structures that relate to the natural world. He introduced the concept of “meaning” into human in- teractions, distinguishing human life from that of other creatures. Thus, Dilthey argued that the study of human life requires a distinct method from the natural sciences, namely, hermeneutics—the interpretation of meaning in human actions and experiences. Within the interpretive paradigm, objectivity is approached through the concept of “ideal types,” which focus on constructing models of typical meanings used by social actors. In contrast to the natural sciences, where objective study occurs outside of nature, SSH pos- its that social facts and phenomena emerge from human actors interacting within reality. This approach aims to create a science of subjectivity that examines meaningful social action, identifying patterns in social life and evaluating them through constructed ideal types. These ideal types serve as experimental hypotheses, guiding further research and testing. In contrast, the critical social science paradigm challenges the notion of false conscious-ness and seeks to expose and eliminate non-objective ways of thinking. This paradigm holds that while humans may be unaware of their false consciousness, they have the po- tential to actively engage in reshaping the social world and their personal lives. Critical social science promotes self-conscious action that frees individuals from non-objective concepts, viewing society not merely as an object but as something to be critically exam- ined and transformed. The pragmatist perspective on objectivity in SSH shifts the focus to practical consequenc- es, evaluating theories based on their ability to address real-world problems. In this view, the objectivity of a theory is determined by its usefulness and its alignment with external reality, specifically its capacity to produce tangible results. On the other hand, the conventionalist approach asserts that scientific propositions gain their acceptability through the subjective understanding of scientists, shaped by social conventions endorsed by the scientific community. This perspective emphasizes the role of social approval and consensus in defining scientific objectivity. Given these various approaches, a critical question arises: which of these definitions of objectivity, based on philosophical foundations, holds epistemological validity when it comes to describing human action as a distinct reality separate from natural phenomena and non-human entities If we take a metaparadigmatic perspective, considering intellec- tual foundations that can speak to the objectivity of human will, action, and phenomena, we might look to two key examples: Immanuel Kant’s views in the Metaphysics of Mor- als, which were not fully developed, and the Islamic tradition of practical wisdom, partic- ularly as articulated by Allameh Tabataba’i, which has continued through the modern era. From the perspective of this article, combining the teachings of Kant and Muslim phi- losophers provides a robust framework for objectivity in SSH. This can only be realized if these disciplines are aligned with practical wisdom and practical reason. Since human action and its principles lie at the core of SSH, objectivity in this context is intrinsically linked to the principle and elements that constitute action. Muslim philosophers, through the lens of practical wisdom, have been able to identify the principles of human action by recognizing practical reason as its guiding force. In contemporary Islamic philosophy, Allameh Tabataba’i’s theory of E’tebariat—which links practical reason to human ac- tion—offers a conceptual roadmap for understanding the objective foundations of human action. This framework allows for the possibility of demonstrative reasoning, connectingthe human world with the deeper reality of the soul and its states, thus providing a path- way to scientific objectivity. This article argues that a coherent understanding of objectivity in SSH can be achieved through the integration of practical reason and E’tebariat, which offers a valid epistemo- logical framework for understanding the objective reality of human action and its role in social and personal life.

 Qualitative research in the social sciences, particularly within management and organizational studies, has gained significant prominence due to its ability to uncover the complexities of human experiences. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), as a qualitative method, focuses on interpreting individuals’ lived experiences while fostering a bidirectional interaction between researcher and participant. This dynamic enables deeper insights into organizational phenomena. The primary aim of this article is to establish a methodological framework for IPA by examining its roots in qualitative research traditions, philosophical foundations, key features, and procedural steps.The article begins with an exploration of IPA’s philosophical underpinnings, addressing its ontological and epistemological perspectives. It then provides a comprehensive description of the method’s implementation stages and a critical evaluation of its application. Finally, the article discusses how IPA can be utilized in organizational studies, particularly in organizational behavior, to investigate the nuanced aspects of workplace dynamics. By combining theoretical rigor with practical relevance, this work seeks to empower researchers to effectively use IPA while addressing its inherent challenges, such as interpretive complexity and contextual sensitivity.

This study adopts a review-analytical approach, drawing on library resources, documentary evidence, and the contributions of key theorists in interpretative phenomenology, such as Husserl, Heidegger, and Smith. The methodology includes a comparative analysis of IPA’s philosophical foundations and contrasts it with other qualitative methods. To ensure the validity of the proposed framework and analysis, academic experts familiar with IPA and qualitative methodology reviewed the study, offering critical feedback that informed subsequent revisions. The research process involved a detailed exploration of foundational texts, the extraction of key concepts, and the synthesis of theoretical principles, with an emphasis on their applicability in organizational contexts.

The findings indicate that IPA, by integrating both phenomenological and hermeneutic approaches, uncovers deeper layers of meaning within organizational experiences. This method allows for the authentic expression of individual narratives while maintaining their integrity. Key distinctions were made between IPA and other qualitative methods such as Grounded Theory (which emphasizes depth over generalizability) and Narrative Analysis (which focuses on the interpretation of meaning rather than story structure). The study also identified limitations of IPA, including potential researcher bias, the time-intensive nature of the analysis, and challenges related to generalizability.

 Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) offers a robust methodology for organizational studies, enabling researchers to explore the complexities of organizational culture, leadership dynamics, and change processes through the lived experiences of stakeholders. By enriching qualitative data, IPA fosters both theoretical advancement and practical solutions in management research. However, its application requires advanced interpretive skills and a nuanced understanding of socio-cultural contexts, which present ongoing challenges for researchers.To enhance methodological rigor, future studies should prioritize thorough documentation of IPA’s procedural stages (such as participant selection, hermeneutic analysis, and thematic synthesis). Additionally, specialized training programs aimed at strengthening researchers’ interpretive competencies—such as critical reflection, contextual sensitivity, and iterative data engagement—are essential for minimizing bias and ensuring accurate interpretations of organizational phenomena. This approach will enable scholars to fully harness IPA’s potential while remaining faithful to the authenticity of participants’ narratives.

 Futures studies, as an interdisciplinary field within the social sciences, require foundational research to sustain and deepen their development, drawing on philosophical, ideological, and theoretical insights from emerging paradigms. This study aims to propose a conceptual framework for the applicability of futures studies, thereby facilitating similar research efforts. In doing so, it helps scholars and researchers save time while encouraging greater engagement with such inquiries, ultimately enhancing the dynamism and flexibility of futures studies. Additionally, to implement this framework, the theoretical implications of fuzzy set theory for futures studies are examined. This study represents the first comprehensive and concise articulation of the conceptual framework for the applicability of futures studies. Moreover, no prior research has specifically explored the applications, guidelines, or implications of fuzzy set theory within the context of futures studies.Like all other scientific disciplines, futures studies inherit their ontology from a broader scientific paradigm. As a distinct field, it also possesses its own epistemology and methodology. Consequently, the applicability framework operates on at least these three levels. During the research process, it became evident that futures studies rely on certain assumptions; without these, the conceptual framework would appear incomplete. Therefore, these assumptions are also explored.

This research is applied and qualitative in nature. Data were collected using a documentary approach, primarily from articles and books available in reputable scientific databases through digital resources. The data are qualitative, and their primary analytical method is thematic analysis, conducted within the methodological framework of implication research. Implication research involves establishing an academic connection between the source of implications and their destination, based on an informed conjecture about the guidance the source provides for the target domain. The methodology of implication research follows a sequential process aimed at bridging two distinct knowledge domains, facilitating the extraction of accurate and relevant implications for the target field. The research design in implication studies can be broadly categorized into systematic and emergent approaches. In the systematic approach, the conceptual framework for the applicability of the target field is carefully designed at the outset. Subsequently, relevant implications are identified from the contributions of the source domain for each element of that framework (Danaeefard, 2016).

 A comprehensive review of reputable sources reveals that the most robust theoretical foundation for futures studies is critical realism. From this perspective, the ontology of futures studies posits that existing realities are understandable but have been shaped over time by economic, political, social, cultural, ethnic, and gender-related factors. These realities manifest as structures that have taken on a concrete form, often appearing as immutable natural truths.Furthermore, in the epistemology of futures studies, plausibility replaces the certainty typically associated with epistemic propositions. Since the future is shaped by both the past and the present, futurists cannot study the future without considering these two temporal dimensions. While evidence exists for the past and present, no such evidence is available for the future. Therefore, futurists can use critical realism to analyze the past and present in order to construct future-oriented propositions. When making forecasts, epistemic statements must be grounded in arguments supported by both formal and informal evidence. Given that the future has not yet materialized, and the truth-value of statements about it remains undetermined, the key criterion becomes the plausibility of those statements. Acknowledging the vital role of background knowledge in generating future-oriented insights, these propositions must consider the social nature and processes involved in the production of knowledge.Many of the methods employed in futures studies have been adapted from other scientific disciplines, a common practice due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field. However, there are also methods specific to futures studies, including: (1) Ethnographic Futures Research, (2) Backcasting, (3) Environmental Scanning, (4) Morphological Analysis, (5) Causal Layered Analysis, (6) Visioning, (7) Roadmapping, (8) Robust Decision-Making, (9) Futures Wheel, (10) Delphi Method, (11) Scenario Planning, (12) Weak Signals, and (13) Wild Cards.Futures studies are built on a range of assumptions, principles, and foundational ideas. While some of these assumptions are not exclusive to the field, they are essential to its structure and cannot easily be dismissed. Among all the principles and assumptions, the list proposed by Bell (2003) in his book is the most comprehensive. No additional assumptions were found in other sources that were not already included in Bell’s framework. According to Bell, the key assumptions of futures studies include: (1) The Meaning of Time, (2) The Possible Singularity of the Future, (3) Futures Thinking and Action, (4) The Most Useful Knowledge, (5) Future Facts (), (6) An Open Future, (7) Humans Make Themselves, (8) Interdependence and Holism, (9) Better Futures, (10) People and Their Projects, (11) Society as Expectation and Decision, and (12) The Existence and Knowledge of External Reality (Bell, 2003).The theoretical implications of fuzzy set theory for futures studies were examined, focusing specifically on its methodological aspects, rather than its ontological, epistemological, or assumption-based dimensions. Within this methodological context, linguistic term processing emerged as the most significant contribution, applicable across all methods. Fuzzy classification was ranked second in importance, relevant to six methods, while the fuzzy inference system was the third and final contribution, applicable solely to robust decision-making and scenario planning.To further enhance the dynamism of the futures studies discipline, future research should explore the implications of emerging theories, sciences, or technologies. Investigating these areas could contribute to enriching this framework and reinforcing its validity for practitioners.Additionally, it is recommended that experts from other disciplines who are interested in futures studies use the framework presented in this article to identify the implications of their specialized fields for the discipline. This approach will not only ensure the continued growth of futures studies but also extend the applicability of their own fields, given the vast scope of this interdisciplinary area.

 The traditional view regarded metaphor merely as a literary device pertaining to the realm of figurative language. However, with the publication of “Metaphors We Live By” by Lakoff and Johnson in the latter half of the twentieth century, a fundamental shift occurred in this concept. This new theory introduces metaphor not as a linguistic phenomenon, but as a foundational mechanism for thinking. In this framework, metaphor involves using tangible and familiar domains (source domains) to comprehend abstract and unfamiliar ones (target domains). Within this new theory, linguistic metaphor is understood as the conscious extension of a subconscious mechanism rooted in the human brain and its conceptual system. Metaphor—that is, the mapping from a source domain (which is tangible and experiential) to a target domain (which is unfamiliar and abstract)—constitutes a significant part of the cognitive mechanism of the human conceptual system and plays a direct role in human cognition.Utilizing this theoretical framework, this study re-examines Plato’s political philosophy in the Politeia. The central research question is: On what conceptual metaphor is the core of Plato’s political philosophy based The hypothesis of the study is that Plato’s understanding of the polis is shaped by the metaphor of THE POLIS AS THE HUMAN BODY, influenced by ancient Greek medicine. This cognitive re-reading reveals hidden layers of Plato’s thought. However, it is crucial to note that this analysis complements traditional metaphysical interpretations and should not be considered a replacement for them. The core of Plato’s philosophy remains grounded in ontological foundations, with Greek medicine serving primarily as a cognitive tool for visualizing abstract political concepts.

The term “metaphor,” derived from the Greek metaphora (meaning “transfer of meaning”), was traditionally considered a conscious literary tool for linguistic embellishment, confined to the realm of literature. Influenced by Plato and Aristotle, this perspective viewed metaphor as a peripheral element, separate from everyday thought and language. It maintained a strict division between literary, scientific, and philosophical discourse, regarding metaphor as the foremost device of the figurative language of poetry and rhetoric.However, the “contemporary theory of metaphor,” advanced within the framework of cognitive linguistics by pioneers like Lakoff and Johnson, challenged this view. From this perspective, metaphor is primarily a mental and conceptual phenomenon rather than a purely linguistic one. Metaphors form the basis of our conceptual system and behavior, with language merely representing the surface manifestation and continuation of metaphorical thinking.The core construct of this theory is cross-domain mapping from a concrete, bodily source domain (e.g., a JOURNEY) to an abstract target domain (e.g., LIFE). These mappings are grounded in embodied human experiences; meaning is bestowed upon abstract concepts through our physical and sensory interactions with the world.This idea that human cognition is rooted in the body and its interaction with the physical environment is supported by findings in neuroscience, such as the discovery of mirror neurons. Consequently, Conceptual Metaphor Theory demonstrates that metaphor is a normal, pervasive, and fundamental mechanism for structuring thought and making sense of the world.

The ancient Greek natural philosophers (Physikoi), a term coined by Aristotle, dedicated their studies to understanding nature. A fundamental premise of their philosophy was the theory of four primary elements—water, air, earth, and fire—as the foundational constituents of the natural world. These philosophers posited that balance among these elements was essential for cosmic order, a prerequisite for creating conditions suitable for human life.In parallel, Greek medicine developed, deeply intertwined with this natural philosophy. Physician-philosophers like Hippocrates and Alcmaeon adopted a holistic view, conceptualizing the human body through these natural principles. Their central doctrine was the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile), wherein health was defined by their equilibrium and illness by its disruption.This medical perspective was considered a reflection of the universal cosmic order. The human body was envisioned as a microcosm harmoniously aligned with the macrocosm. From a contemporary cognitive science standpoint, this relationship can be interpreted as a primary conceptual metaphor, where NATURE serves as the source domain for comprehending the HUMAN BODY as the target domain.Building upon this cognitive sequence, Plato, in his Politeia, employs this very metaphor. He utilizes the concept of the human body—already understood through the lens of nature in medicine—as the source domain to elucidate and structure the concept of the polis as the target domain. Consequently, the Greek medical understanding of the body provided the cognitive foundation for the formation of Plato’s political philosophy in the Politeia.

 Employing the framework of cognitive science and conceptual metaphor theory, this study demonstrates that Plato’s political philosophy in the Politeia is structured through an unconscious metaphorical mechanism. These metaphors are deeply rooted in ancient Greek medical understanding, particularly the concept of humoral equilibrium as the basis of bodily health.Plato constructs his ideal political structure by mapping from the source domain of the human body to the target domain of the idealized polis depicted in the Politeia. Just as bodily health depends on the balance of humors, justice in the city requires the harmony and proper placement of each social class. The philosopher-king, analogous to reason governing the body, assumes the role of the head in administering the city. Essential to this polis is sophrosyne (self-restraint), whereby each member performs their designated function, thereby achieving political equilibrium—mirroring bodily health.This cognitive reading reveals the unconscious layers of Plato’s thought, illustrating how abstract political concepts like justice were comprehended through embodied, tangible experiences. This approach, emphasizing the interconnection of natural philosophy, medicine, and politics, does not replace traditional metaphysical interpretations but serves as an essential complement. It elucidates how cosmic concepts were translated into the concrete realm of political theory.