نشریه اطلاعات جغرافیایی (سپهر)
پیاپی 55 (پاییز 1384)

How is the relationship between automation and cartography? What is the effect of automation on cartography? What is the achievement of automation in cartography? Each of the human sciences has, through connection with modern technology, made great achievements in terms of ease of use, speed, application, access to great deal of knowledge and vast advances. The science of cartography, influenced by modern technology and automation, has undergone a fundamental change, and has grown in terms of dimensions, scope of influence and number of applications. The relationship of automation with cartography: The computer's entry into cartography has found its true form in a 50-year-old process. The first successful attempt to exploit the computer to produce a map goes back to the early 1950s. The utilization of computer techniques in production of cartographic works took place in the mid-1970s, and it reached a stage in the late 1980s that it could replace a large part of classic cartography.

Military forces are now limiting their activities to near-space, and they carry out their missions within this section of the space. Therefore, familiarity with new concepts of spatial geographic factors is necessary for maneuvering in a modeling environment. In the study of spatial geographic factors, through the nineteenth and twentieth parts of this series of papers under the title “an introduction to military geography”, the first two of the four following regions were discussed. A) Intermediate section of aerospace; B) Near- space (close to the environment of the Earth); C) Moon and its surroundings; D) The outer space without a definite or fixed shape beyond it; This paper deals with "the Moon and its surroundings".

Dynamism of satellite images with linear arrangement has made it possible to use highly complex algorithms requiring information from the satellite's orbit to carry out geometric correction of these images with high precision. On the other hand, in new satellite imagery, sellers of these images are not interested in sending this information. For this reason, in order to perform the geometric correction of these images, we need new mathematical models to perform the geometric correction and meet the required precision without any need for satellite information. One of these models is the Rational Function Model, which is used for this purpose. The other is the modified DLT. In this paper, these models have been investigated for geometric correction of satellite images, for which purpose programs have been written in Visual C environment. To test these models, the results of these models’ implication on IRS, IKONOS and SPOT satellite images were surveyed. The results of this study showed that these models were able to perform the geometric correction of these images. Although they are less accurate than the models that use orbit parameters, the value of these models lies in their independence from satellite orbit parameters, their vast capacity of processing and also in the simplicity of these models.

The increasing population growth of the country over the last two decades and the exponential increase of young population make it necessary to pay attention to new strategies for creating employment. The existence of potential for tourism around the country which has made Iran a capable country in this field, and using this potential for income and employment generation can be one of these solutions. The city of Firoozabad has a relatively high population growth. Considering the tourist attractions of Firoozabad, and considering special sensitivity of young people’s employment, tourism can be used as a way for creating employment and dealing with the challenge of unemployment. Accordingly, in this paper, considering the population structure and the number of arrival of tourists to Firoozabad, a study has been made of major occupational groups and the level of employment that tourism can provide, and finally a solution has been suggested in this regard. The main method of research is analysis of the statistics and information available in relation to the purpose of the study.

Living organisms are confronted with two different and opposing forces, one internal (genetic changes) and the other external (environmental changes). The outcome of this interaction is the evolution of organisms over time. The environmental changes that lead to the evolution of organisms can be divided into four groups: A. Ecological changes leading to Microevolution and natural selection become more or less stable in communities. B. Milankovitch cycles that cause severe changes in climate through cycles of twenty to one hundred thousand years, with the result of destruction of living communities and elimination of changes accumulated through ecological changes. C: Geological changes that cause the isolation of different populations of a species and cause major evolutionary changes (Macroevolution). D: Mass extinctions of organisms that averagely occur on the Earth every 26 million years and cause destruction of large groups of organisms in a very short time.

The difference in air pressure of two different points on the surface of the Earth causes the flow of air from the high-pressure zone to the low-pressure one. In meteorology this flow is called "wind". Wind is one of the meteorological parameters that is widely considered in developmental and spatial planning. In municipal engineering and urban planning, attention to dominant wind direction is a necessity in the construction of structures. In agricultural meteorology, particular attention is paid to the wind factor. The wind study is important in air transportation and location of airport construction. Considering the increasing consumption of fossil fuels such as oil, gas, coal, etc., and their non-renewable reality, advanced and developing countries are paying special attention to new energies, especially wind power. Therefore, attention to the direction and speed of wind is one of the necessities in regional studies. The wind direction and speed are analyzed after drawing the wind rose. Therefore, in this article, a software for drawing wind rose is briefly described.

Looking at the history of Mashhad, it is noted that this city had been frequently invaded; therefore the construction of fortifications and guarding towers was essential for its protection against the attacks of enemies. Most geographers, tourists and military-political agents of foreign states have described Mashhad only in terms of its general appearance, and they have at most enumerated its defensive characteristics. Among various reports, sometimes we find the physical tissue of the city, which was disorganized, and we notice the street as the only public and important passage built on a regular basis. Considering the political-defensive role of Mashhad and the establishment of the governor or ruler of the whole region in this city, it is noticed that in addition to physical prominence of the shrine of Imam Reza, the governor's palace which was usually located in the Ark of this city, has been also distinctive in comparison with other urban structures.

Ozone was discovered by Austrian in 1840, and its basic study dates back to the early 20th century. This rare blue gas, composed of three oxygen atoms (O3), absorbs solar radiation in a spectral range of less than 0.29 microns, and in particular it fully absorbs the range between 0.22 and 0.29 microns (full absorption). Although this amount of absorption is not high, ozone is nevertheless a protective sieve that plays an important role in preventing the dangerous ultraviolet (UV) spectra’s penetration to the surface of the Earth. The Ozone’s power of absorbing radiation in wide parts of infrared ranges including the wavelength of radiations by the Earth is significant, and the reason for the rise in temperature of the stratosphere is the heat generated by absorption of ultraviolet radiation. In general, the thermal structure of the stratosphere is controlled by this gas, and its role in the life and survival of the biosphere is so vital that the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1995 was given to three ozone researchers who spent years working to preserve this gas and prevent its destruction, and to make the world aware of its vital role.

Recently, in Mexico, using digital maps of the 1970s, 1993 and 2000, a profitable data bank was established to measure the extent and characteristics of Land Use and Cover Change (LUCC) across the country. In order to advance this plan, an existing map of land use and cover available on a scale of 1:250,000 was revised in order to determine the input data in terms of scale, classification scheme and mapping method. The digital maps prepared in three different dates (i.e., late 1970s, 1993 and 2000) were merged into a GIS database after being reviewed, evaluated and corrected. In order to improve the credibility of the data bank, efforts were made to evaluate the accuracy of the method and the digitization procedure and to detect and correct the unpredictable changes resulting from thematic errors in the map. The digital maps were put onto each other to create LUCC maps and calculate transition matrices and conversion rates. Based on this data bank, the deforestation rate between the years 1976 and 2000 was estimated as 0.25% and 0.76% per year for the moderate and tropical forests respectively.

The evaluation of the geometric function of a large-scale digital camera (ULTRACAMD) is the main subject of this paper. The concepts of geometric calibration by bundle adjustment method have been described. The additional parameters based on the specific design of the camera are determined and defined, and the BINGO group modification software has been upgraded to manage these parameters. The entire calibration process will consist of four steps. In the first step, a set of images is taken from fully-clear targets such that additional observations (with high degree of freedom) are possible. The second step is to measure the coordinates of the image. Automation and accuracy are achieved by image processing techniques utilizing a special form of fully-clear targets. The third step involves processing the semi-automatic adjustment, and the unknown parameters (focal length, principal point coordinates, distortion parameters and additional parameters) are estimated. In the fourth step, we will identify the linear and non-linear parameters. Linear parameters are used to reduce the linear effects of distortion in the camera. This will be achieved by linear transmission of measured coordinates, so that only nonlinear small effects will remain. The remaining effects are then described in a table (Look Up table). The results of a series of full calibration operations, modified parameters and the effects of these parameters were presented. Finally calibration has been confirmed and implemented.

The sediments are generally located in various masses close together and form different land lays. Therefore, their examination makes interpretation of the environments of sedimentation as well as past and current geography possible. The present paper presents the characteristics, evolution, geometric shapes and morphology of alluvial fans with emphasis on the conditions of the Marand depression’s fans. Before examining this phenomenon, it is necessary to state the position and the process of formation of the Marand depression.

This discussion examines the changing relationships between population and development, and in the first stage it represents the quantitative aspects of population such as size, density and migration’s rate of growth in relation to the issue of nomadism, a matter which obviously plays a very important role in the level and nature of development in the region. In the second stage, the quality aspects of the population such as the role of human resources in the development process have been discussed. This section mainly focuses on health and education issues, but nowadays human rights issues receive greater attention. Finally, there is no solid evidence of a strong causal relationship between various factors of population and the level of development, but the continuation of this discussion shows what needs are to be met in order to improve the quality of life of the majority of people living in the developing world.

Geodesy is a science that is related to determining the shape and geometry of the Earth and coordinates of points on the surface of, and above, the Earth, such as satellites and other moving objects above the Earth's surface. Therefore, in order to meet the geodesic goals in regards to positioning, we first need to define the geodesic-related coordinate system. In order to be able to objectify a point in three-dimensional space and to express its relation to a reference system called the coordinate system, we need to specify three parameters: 1 - origin 2 - axis directions 3 - parameters defining the position of a point in the coordinates system. One of the systems used in geodesy is the geocentric coordinate system, the origin of which is a point near the center of the Earth and the Z axis of the system is along the Earth's axis of rotation. Since the Earth's rotation is around the pole and the location of the pole is variable, the Z axis will have a different position, therefore we find it difficult to find the parameters determining a certain position in this system (factor III of the definition of the coordinate system). In this paper, using observations regarding the x, y components of the pole from 1962 to 1997, it can be concluded that this non-periodic motion can be studied and even predicted by using mathematical methods through the fitting of continuous functions. The results show that the power of showing this important movement in various mathematical functions is different, so that in some mathematical functions, the polar motion has an incremental acceleration, while others show that this movement has a completely irregular acceleration.