فصلنامه تاریخ اسلام
پیاپی 25 (بهار 1385)

India was a brilliant center of knowledge and civilization in the ancient world; and Indian medicine was a deeply rooted scientific discipline in those days. This discipline had been mixed with religious teachings of ancient Indians, and in its earliest stages with Indian magic and superstition. Nature, India’s diverse plant covering and its employment for natural and herbal cure of various pains, plus the mixing of primitive forms of medicine with spiritual and religious phenomena caused Indian medicine to appear in different forms from voodoo medicine and exorcism to acupuncture and herbotherapy. These different methods of medical practice were highly influential at the time gaining the attention of ancient scientific centers including those in Iran. The Indian medical heritage, particularly since the age of the Iranian King Khosrow II Anushirvan, entered such scientific centers as the University of Jundi-Shapur, and was combined with other medical schools such as the Iranian, Greek and Babylonian traditions. Following the advent of Islam and early Muslim conquests, this scientific heritage was transferred to the Muslim World. The writer has tried here to demonstrate the position of Indian medical knowledge and the role of India’s physicians in the spread of Indian medical tradition to the Muslim World, and especially to the court of the ‘Abbasid caliphs.

The demise of Imam Hasan al-Askari (A) on Rabi‘-al-Awwal 8, 260 A.H. brought about a difficult situation for the Imamiyah community that is known as the Minor Occultation in the Shi’ah history. Relying on the extant documents of the period, this article takes up a historical study of this era, particularly the activities of the first two envoys and a number of major difficulties faced by the Imamiyah at this time. Next, the theological opinions of two prominent theologians of the period, Ibn Ghubbah and Abu-Sahl Now-Bakhti, are dealt with.

Years before the Buyids entered Baghdad, the ‘Abbasid caliphs had practically transferred their worldly powers to their commanders in chief. Following their conquests in Iran, The Buyid brothers who had Shi‘i inclinations turned their attention to Baghdad. After his entrance into Baghdad, Mu‘izz-ad-Dawlah intended to transfer power from the ‘Abbasids to Al-i ‘Ali (‘Ali’s Family), but on the advice of his vizier he changed his mind and sufficed with removing the caliph and replacing him with a new one. The appointment of an obedient person to the caliphate seat and his dismissal when necessary was a big advantage the Buyids obtained for the first time. Thus, in addition to their political power, the spiritual power of the ‘Abbasid caliphs also fell on a path of decline.On the long run, however, the absence of Buyid princes from Baghdad and differences between their two branches in Iraq and Persia prepared grounds for the caliphs to regain their lost power. The caliphs gradually increased their spiritual powers and then in order to break the Daylamite Buyids, they used the rising military power of Seljuq Toghril. Nevertheless, the ‘Abbasid caliphs never again attained their eminent position of the past.

The Khwarezm-Shahi dynasty was among the Turkic dynasties that rose to power during the period of Seljuq decline and disintegration. Since in the middle centuries all dynasties needed the spiritual backing of the caliph in Baghdad to add legitimacy to their rule, the Khwarezm-Shahis, and in particular Atsez and ‘Ala’-ed-Din Tekish, adopted flexible policies vis-à-vis the caliphate system. After politically uniting the eastern parts of the Muslim World, the Khwarezm-Shahis tried to bring the institution of the caliphate under their own influence and domination. This article deals with the Khwarezm-Shahi political relations with the ‘Abbasid caliphs from the beginning until the last days of their survival as an empire.

Delhi, the most important city in northern India, was constructed by Rajah Prithvi and is the oldest of the seven cities attributed to this name. Because of its strategic position, many dynasties ruled Delhi the most important of which were the Sultans of Delhi. One major branch of the Sultans of Delhi dynasty was the “Shamsiyan of India”. Radhiyah Khatun was the fifth king of this branch and the first Muslim woman to ascend the throne. She ruled independently for four years (634-638 A.H.) in Delhi and embarked on reforms in different areas. How Radhiyah Khatun took power, the major events of her rule, and her end are issues dealt with in this paper.

Ibn Ghutaybah ad-Dinawari is a major Muslim historian and literary figure of the 3rd century A.H. Researchers have always been fascinated by his religious ideas, ethnic background, cooperation with Abbasid caliphs, and also by his literary, theological, juristic, astronomical, and historical works. Briefly evaluating Ibn Ghutaybah’s political and religious inclinations and personalities that influenced his thoughts, the writer of this paper discusses his authentic works and some of those attributed to him plus changes in his inclinations throughout his life.

The work before you is the translation of at-Tathkira-tal-Hirawiyah fi Funun-al-Harbiyah, a treatise written by ‘Ali ibn Abu-Bakr al-Hirawi probably in the 6th century A.H. this book has been written in twenty four chapters. Its first ten chapters are dedicated to the rules of governance and the last fourteen chapters to the rules of war. In the first ten chapters, the writer presents to the king recommendations, advices, and guidelines on how to run a country. Characteristics and qualities of ministers, courtiers, provincial governors, judges, administrators and scribes, and ambassadors and envoys of government are issues treated in brief segments here. The second part of the book is devoted to the techniques and art of war and its strategies and tactics. Here, topics such as the qualities of spies, the dispatch of intelligence agents to acquire information on the enemy, alertness, discipline and preparation in the face of enemy attack, inciting and encouraging people to war, types of battle such as opening castles and setting siege and conquering cities, and other war techniques that a sultan or caliph should know concerning the rules and musts of war have been discussed and reviewed.