مجله روانپزشکی و روانشناسی بالینی ایران
سال چهاردهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 52، بهار 1387)

Disregard of the rights of the mentally ill is a prevalent condition in the world. Whereas until the mid twentieth century most legislations were enacted to protect the society against individuals with mental disorders, in recent years the attitudes of legislators has been focused on protecting the rights of the mentally ill. The aim of this study is to review the laws related to involuntary hospitalization in different countries, and world Health Organization (WHO)’s recommendations in this regard. In a review study, the mental health act of some countries especially concerning involuntary hospitalization is evaluated. Information was gathered in a two year period through review of more than 40 electronic sources and hand searching 15 available sources. Laws of involuntary hospitalization of countries as well as World Health Organiza- tion comments on separation of involuntary treatment and hospitalization, establishing environments with the least restrictions, criteria for involuntary hospitalization, authorities of diagnosis and certification of involuntary hospitalization and the duration of involuntary hospitalization were compared. This study reveals that the WHO and most studied countries have emphasized the imposing of the following rules: The establishment of the least restrictive environment, the presence of “dangerousness” and “need to treatment” as criteria for involuntary hospitalization, the requirement of two accredited persons for determination of indication of hospitalization, the approval of the mentioned indication by an impartial source, and the limitation of the duration of emergency hospitalization to a few days. Also, the process of involuntary hospitalization and treatment are separated in some countries and combined in some others. Considering the significance of the reciprocal rights of the society and the mentally ill, involuntary hospitalization encompasses a major part of mental health legislations. WHO considers involuntary hospitalization to be not only a deprivation of liberty but also a psychological trauma, and deems the establishing of principles for involuntary hospitalization law necessary. In addition, considering the insufficiency of legislations related to this issue in Iran, a need to deal with the insufficiencies and legalize the process of involuntary hospitalization is evident.

The purpose of this study was to compare the attribution style among criminals with conduct disorder and watchmen in Tehran’s Center for Correction and Rehabilitation. Retrospective method was used in this study. Two groups consisted of an experimental group (30 criminals and 15 watchmen) and a normal group (30 normal subjects) who were matched for sex, age and education were evaluated. The subjects in the criminal and normal groups were selected using random sampling and convenience sampling methods respectively but due to the small number of watchmen in the center, all were evaluated. The subjects in the three groups were assessed through interview and Attribution Style Ques-tionnaire (ASQ). Data were analyzed using one way analysis of variance and post hoc Scheffe. Data showed that criminal’s attribution style for unfavorable events is different from the attribution styles of watchmen and normal subjects. Their attribution style was more external (p<0.01) and more unstable (p<0.01). Other attribution styles were not significantly different among the three groups. Criminals with conduct disorder attribute unfavorable events to external and unstable factors. This kind of attribution could have a role in the maintenance of their criminal actions.

Since individuals with social anxiety disorder experience a high level of anxiety in social situations, and self efficacy in social situations is considered to determine social anxiety, the present study examines the relationship between social self-efficacy, self-focused attention, cognitive biases, and social anxiety. This is a cross-sectional comparative study. 830 high school students (429 girls and 401 boys) who were selected using random-cluster sampling method completed the following questionnaires: Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A), Probability/Cost Questionnaire for Children (PCQ-C), Focus of Attention Questionnaire (FAQ) and Self-efficacy for Social Situation Scale (SESS). Data were analyzed using correlation coefficient and regression analysis. There were significant correlations between social anxiety and social self-efficacy (p<0.001) and self-focused attention (p<0.001). In addition, social anxiety, social self-efficacy and self- focused attention had a significant relationship with the probability (p<0.001) and the outcome (p<0.001) of negative social events and the mediational model was ultimately confirmed. In other words social anxiety was related to social self-efficacy and self-focused attention and therefore with cognitive biases. Self-focused attention and measures of biased judgments are related to the control of social self-efficacy and social anxiety.

The comparison of defence mechanisms and coping strategies in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder and major depressive disorder and normal subjects was the aim of the present study. The statistical population of the present study included individuals with generalized anxiety disorder, major depressive disorder and normal subjects who had presented to public and private psychiatric consultation centers in the city of Ardabil (Iran) and had been diagnosed by psy-chiatrists according to DSM-IV criteria. 171 individuals from among the subjects presenting to eight centers were selected using structured sampling. In this retrospective, causal-comparitive and correlational study, Folkman and Lazarus Coping Strategies Questionnaire and Defense Mechanisms Questionnaire were used for gathering data. Data were analyzed through two factor variance analysis, the Least Statistical Difference (LSD) test and Pearson’s correlation test. There was no significant difference in the mean scores of coping strategies between subjects with generalized anxiety disorder and those with major depressive disorder, but the mean score of avoidance coping was higher in the first group than the second (p<0.05). On the other hand, the subjects with the above-mentioned disorders had a lower mean score of social support seeking coping in comparison with normal individuals (p<0.001). The mean score of highly adaptive defensive mechanisms was higher in subjects with generalized anxiety compared to subjects with major depression (p<0.05). Also, the mean scores of negative levels, function, disorganized defense and psychological avoidance were higher in the second group in comparison with the first (p<0.04). Maladaptive defence machanisms have a higher mean in major depressive disorder. However, the mean of avoidance coping is higher in generalized anxiety disorder compared to major depressive disorder. Therefore, attempting to decrease the application of avoidance coping and increasing the use of problem oriented coping instead of emotion oriented coping can cause a reduction in the experience of depression and anxiety in both sexes.

The purpose of this research was to assess the relationship of behavioral disorders and coping styles and coping strategies in secondary school students in the city of Tehran. 420 students (195 boys and 225 girls) who were randomly selected from three areas (areas one, six, and 16) in the city of Tehran completed the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and Adolescent Coping Scale (ACS). Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation and multiple regression analysis. There was a negative relationship between behavioral disorders and efficient coping style and referring to others coping style (p<0.001). Step by step regression analysis showed a significant difference between measures of behavioral disorders and coping strategies (p<0.001). In addition, from among the strategies, physical recreation, hard working, social support, tranquility, resistance, positive concentration, and lowering stress had positive relationships with behavioral disorders (R=0.55) and explain a total of 30% of behavioral disorders (R2=0.307) Efficient and non-efficient coping styles and their related strategies are able to significantly predict behavioral disorders. Coping strategies can explain a part of changes related to behavioral disorders.

This study was carried out to examine the role of responsibility and metacognitive beliefs in obsessive-compulsive disorder while controlling for worry, and to assess the internal relationship between responsibility and metacognitive beliefs. Twenty-five patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), 25 patients with generalized anxiety disorder and 25 normal participants who were selected using convenience sampling method from individuals refered to psychiatric hospitals in the city of Shiraz (Iran), took part in this study. In order to measure metacognitive beliefs, responsibility beliefs and worry the Metacognition Questionnaire-30 (MCQ-30), Responsibility Attitudes Scale (RAS) and Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) were used respectively. Data were analyzed using one and multiple way analysis of variance, one way analysis of covariance, and appropriate follow-up tests. Results indicated that when responsibility and worry were controlled the OCD and GAD patients differed from normal participants on metacognitive beliefs (p<0.001), but when metacognitive beliefs were controlled, the OCD, GAD and normal group did not differ on responsibility beliefs. Also, the OCD and GAD group did not differ on all metacognotive subscales except for the need to control thoughts. The present data are consistent with meta-cognitive conceptualizations of obsessive-compulsive disorders.

The aim of this study was to determine the eightfold aspects of quality of life in the elderly population of the city of Kashan (Iran) and to evaluate their welfare, health and therapuetic needs. This research is a descriptive cross-sectional study. The study population consisted of 60 years and older individuals in the city of Kashan, who were living with their families. The subjects were 389 elderly individuals (196 males and 193 females) who were selected using random sampling. Data were collected using Short Form-36 Item Quality of Life Questionnaire. The score for the quality of physical function was 59 (57 for females and 66 for males), and the score for general understanding of health in the elderly was 60.7 (55.5 for females and 65.7 for males). The score for physical role was 51 (47.5 for females, 54.5 for males) the score for social activity was 78.2 (78 for females, 78.4 for males) and the score for emotional role was 61.8 (61.2 for females, 62.4 for males). The score for mental health was 94.4 (91.4 for females, 97.3 for males), and the score for physical pain was 61.7 (57.2 for females, 66.1 for males). The elderly population in the city of Kashan enjoy a higher quality of life in comparison with their peers in other parts of Iran.

This study was carried out to assess the relationship of psychological hardiness and ego-resiliency with the mental health of youth and adult survivors of earthquake-stricken areas of Bam, and also to determine the contribution of each of the predicting variables. This research is a descriptive retrospective study. 314 youth and adult (138 males, 176 females) survivors of Bam earthquake, who were selected through convenience sampling participated in this research. All subjects completed Ahvaz Hardiness Inventory (AHI), Connor-Davidson Resilience (CD-RIS), General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28), and Demographic Inventory. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was used for statistical analysis. A positive significant correlation was seen between hardiness and ego-resiliency and mental health (p<0.01). In addition, the results showed that hardiness and ego-resiliency are able to predict mental health significantly (p<0.001). In this research, resiliency was the best predictor of mental health. The findings indicate that hardiness and ego-resiliency are important and fundamental in the preservation and promotion of mental health in earthquake-stricken subjects. The two mentioned variables are able to explain the high rate of mental health variation in adverse conditions and considering them in disaster mental health is essential.�

The following study was carried out with the aim of evaluating six pathological susceptibility backgrounds (personality traits, life style, social and family relationships, beliefs and thought, feelings and emotions and behaviors). In a causal-comparitive study 240 subjects (120 recovered addicts and 120 normal individuals) were selected using stratified random sampling method from rehabilitation centers of four cities: Urmieh, Qum, Shiraz and Tehran. Males constituted 95% of the subjects with an age range of 18 and over. Data were gathered using Addiction Susceptibility Questionnaire (ASQ) and analyzed using t-test. Drug dependent subjects were significantly different from the normal subjects in each of the pre-addiction susceptibility back-grounds (p<0.001). These backgrounds are effective in forming the vulnerability for addiction. Drug dependent subjects possess more abnormal characteristics (incorrect lifestyle, unhealthy social and familial relation- ships, erroneous thoughts and beliefs, abnormal emotions and hazardous behavior).

The present study was designed with the aim of comparing the average burden and the source of burden (mental or objective) in caregivers of patients with chronic schizophrenia and caregivers of patients with chronic bipolar disorder. In a retrograde study, 50 caregivers of patients with schizophrenia and 50 caregivers of patients with bipolar disorder who had presented to the psychiatric clinic or Razi Psychiatric Centre during a 6 month period, were selected using convenience sampling. The subjects were then examined using Dermographic Characteristics Questionnaire And Caregivers’ Burden Measure. Data were analyzed using t-test and Pearson’s correlation coefficient. The level of burden in caregivers of patients with chronic schizo- phrenia was significantly higher (p<0.05) than that of caregivers of patients with chronic bipolar disorder (35.5 versus 28.9). In addition, the important source of burden in both groups of caregivers was objective and significant in all levels (p<0.05). Regarding the high level of burden in caregivers of patients with chronic schizophrenia in comparison with caregivers of patients with chronic bipolar disorder, identification, support and meeting the needs of these caregivers need a higher priority.

The aim of the present study was to examine the psychometric properties of individuals with Highly Sensitive Processing Sensitivity Scale (HSPSS) in the cultural pattern of Iranian Society in relation to psychopathological characteristics. 372 male undergraduate students were selected using stratified random sampling and evaluated using the Highly Sensory Processing Person (HSPPS) Scale, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Data were analyzed using factor analysis, correlation test and multiple regression. The results support a three-component structure of Ease of Excitation (EOE), Low Sensitivity Threshold (LST) and Enrichment by Aesthetic and Sensory Sensitivity (EASS). This study showed that sensory processing sensitivity is related to psychopathological measures. Also, EOE and LST were selectively associated with anxiety and depression. Aesthetic and Sensory Sensitivity are indirectly associated with anxiety and depression, which indicates its protective role.

This research was carried out with the aim of examining computer anxiety in students and its relationship with computer self-efficacy in Arak University. This study is a descriptive research in which 370 students of different fields in Arak University (123 males, 218 females) which were selected using random cluster sampling method, were examined. Data were gathered using computer anxiety classification measure and computer self-efficacy measure. Statistical regression, Pearson's correlation and t-test were used for data analysis. Arak University students had a higher degree of anxiety than the low level. There was a significant relation between computer anxiety and computer self-efficacy (p<0.01). Among the individual variables (sex, major field, scores mean) only major field had a significant effect on predicting the basic variable (computer anxiety) (p<0.001). Also, there was no significant difference between the scores mean of computer anxiety of boys and girls, but a difference was found regarding computer self-efficacy (p<0.001). Computer anxiety is high in Arak University students. Necessary attention and action should be carried out to reduce computer anxiety in students.