فصلنامه راهبرد
پیاپی 48 (پاییز 1387)

Pursuant to longstanding rivalry with India and in order to demonstrate its deterrent power against that country, Pakistan carried out its first nuclear test on November 28, 1998, thus becoming a nuclear-weapon state. Although nuclear tests carried out by India and Pakistan elicited negative reactions from big powers at that time, but those reactions were limited to minor sanctions. Despite its concern, the United States did not care much about Pakistan before 9/11. However, the terrorist attacks, whose perpetrators were based in Afghanistan and had close ties to ISI (Pakistan’s intelligence agency), greatly startled the American government. On the other hand, empowerment of radical Islamist forces in Pakistan and escalation of domestic crisis in that country further alarmed the west and made security of Pakistan’s nuclear facilities a major preoccupation for west. The United States is currently trying to shore up Pakistan’s President Parvez Musharraf and help him to establish necessary protective systems to ensure security of that country’s nuclear installations. At the same time, the possibility of direct intervention in Pakistan in case of possible overthrow of Musharraf has not been overruled.

Survival of a society hinges on existence and respect for Law and order (to regulate relations; among members of that society). International society also needs some order. However, that; order cannot be imposed under pressure from one or more members, but should be accepted; by the majority as a collective value. As long as international order has not become a norm, it; will be neither sustainable, nor able to take a single course due to differences in the interests; of the members of international society. Therefore, negating legal order will be tantamount to; negating social order and more than anything else, social order needs a legal order. Meanwhile,; some governments are trying to present non-collective definitions of international security,; peace and interests of international society in order to shape the norms that govern those issues; without taking on board the viewpoints of all members of international society. Proliferation; Security Initiative (PSI) is one such example.; The present paper will analyze this initiative in the light of international law and will; expound its consequences for international peace and security.

Conflicts and wars have been an integral component of domestic and international policies in; the course of history. After establishment of modern nation-state, it has tried to reduce conflicts.; Since Westphalia Treaty, the world has experienced different approaches to end conflicts; and wars. According to a scientific classification, conflict management, conflict resolution,; and multidimensional conflict approaches have been used at international level to manage; major conflicts in the past few centuries. The present article focuses on challenges resulting; from multidimensional conflict management approach adopted in the course of UN peacekeeping; missions from historical and analytical angles.; The paper will also review historical background of UN peacekeeping missions as a component; of multidimensional conflict management approach. In view of that historical background,; peacekeeping missions undertaken by the United States are currently facing major; challenges which can be divided in two groups: security challenges as well as cooperationcoordination; challenges. According to this division, security challenges are posed by either 1); weak and defeated governments, or 2) terrorism. Security challenges posed by weak or defeated; states include delay in nation building process, power vacuum, inequality, and corruption.; Ethnic, tribal, and racial discriminations as well as religious bigotry are major challenges; resulting from terrorism.; In view of the importance of UN peacekeeping operations, we must identify related challenges; and get ready to confront them while coordinating various factors to undertake peacekeeping; missions conforming to new international conditions. Such missions will be of utmost; importance due to significance of human security.

The United Arab Emirates, like other Persian Gulf littoral states, is grappling with a structural challenge between rapid economic growth and lack of political development which is characterized by violation of international human rights standards. However, it seems that signs of democratic reforms and more respect for human rights are gradually appearing in that country in order to appease international public opinion, attract foreign investments, and achieve sustainable development targets. However, the most important criticism related to human rights violations of UAE government has, thus far, focused on four issues: A) disregard for the rights of immigrant workers; B) restrictions on freedom of expression; C) human smuggling; and D) capital punishment and other forms of physical punishments.

Although Zionist agents were active in Arabic countries, especially Iraq, through such organizations; as Jewish Agency even before establishment of Israel in 1948, and despite the fact that; Zionist theoretician, Theodor Herzl, had designated the whole Ottoman Empire (of which Iraq; was a small part) as the promised land for the Israeli government and some delegations had; met with the Ottoman king, Israel was never officially present in Iraq either before or after its; establishment. Only Zionist intelligence agencies were present there under different covers; and pursued their goals. This became more pronounced after the birth of Israel and opposition; to it by Arabic and Islamic governments, especially after establishment of a unified Arab front; led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. Most governments of Iraq were inspired by anti-Zionist Arabic; nationalism to show their animosity toward Israel in every possible manner.; Therefore, after the war in Iraq, one of the most important developments discussed at international; and regional levels was the role of Israel in that war and its subsequent presence in; Iraq.; The strategic void after downfall of Saddam prompted countries which had interests in; Iraq to enhance their clout in that country in order to influence future developments to their; own benefit and to the detriment of rival states.; Iran and Israel are two most important countries which have vested interests in Iraq.

March 22 is the world Water Day, which aims to encourage nations seek ways to overcome; "water resources management crisis". That crisis means lack of correct laws and a political; determination to solve the existing problem regarding world water resources.; A major problem with regard to limited water reserves is increased number of people needing; those reserves. Since everybody needs clean, fresh water, it is easy to imagine that future; NO. 48, Vol. 16, Autumn 2008; 8; wars will be over water. During the past 50 years, 37 instances of violence have broken out; among countries over water and in all those cases save for seven cases, Middle East has been; involved. According to studies carried out by the United Nations, water shortage is an acute; problem throughout Middle East.; Although those studies have indicated Iran and Iraq as two countries which are not still; grappling with water shortage, if the current downturn in water resources continues, the two; countries will be facing the crisis in the near future. Since Iran is located in a region which has; been always facing water shortage, studies have indicated that per capita water quota will be; below 1,000 cubic meters by 2050.; Therefore, introducing a "global action plan" is necessary to ensure water access for all; people. Also, considering public water access as a major component of human rights, formulating; national and regional policies and increasing international aid to developing and underdeveloped; states along with the said global action plan will be good steps to be taken to overcome; this problem.; The present paper will introduce some reliable indexes for determining water crisis while; explaining the most important problems currently facing the world and Iran for access to sustainable; water resources for different uses. In conclusion, suitable mechanisms for preventing; unfavorable social, political, and economic conditions resulting from incorrect management of; water resources and non-optimal consumption, which has led to water scarcity, will be presented.