فصلنامه رفاه اجتماعی
پیاپی 28 (بهار 1387)

This article focuses on income distribution and inequality changes in Iran from 1984 till 2006. To this end it calculates five inequality indices across rural and urban areas within the period of the study. Using Household Expenditure Survey conducted by Statistical Center of Iran, income distribution and inequality changes for urban and rural areas in Iran within time span 1984 to 2006 are calculated. To this end, Gini Coefficient, Relative Mean Deviation, Coefficient of Variation, Theil's Index and Atkinson's Measure are calculated and the results of the inequality indices are compared. In this study household expenditure is used as a close proxy of household's income and well-being. In spite of the fluctuations of the inequality measures in the period of the study, the general trend of inequality has been declining. Nevertheless, in the first two years of the fourth social and economic planning, i.e., 2005 and 2006, inequality has been increasing. Comparing inequality figures calculated by the five different measures show that there is a general consistency among the measures while the figures calculated by the Coefficient of Variation show less consistency with the other indices. Atkinson's measure has been calculated with different values of the inequality aversion parameter. The results show that while the parameter assumes values between 0.25 and 0.5, Atkinson's measure is more consistent with other inequality measures. It seems that Gini coefficient, Theil's index and Atkinson's measure show strong consistency and policy makers can use either of them for economy and simplicity. Nevertheless, Gini coefficient is easier to understand and more popular. Gini coefficient has been declined from 0.411 in 1984 to 0.401 in 2006 for urban areas and increased from 0.397 in 1984 to 0.4 in 2006. Theil's index indicates a sharp decline from 0.392 in 1991 to 0.261 in 1992 in urban areas and relatively strong decline from 0.37 in 1991 to 0.248 in 2003 for rural areas. Once Atkinson's measure is calculated for the inequality aversion parameter 0.5 the highest figure is 0.157 in 1990 and the lowest one is 0.118 in 1993 for urban areas. The same measure shows mild decrease of inequality from0.159 in 1991 to 0.115 in 2002 for rural areas. Consumption share of the highest deciles has been declined from 29.3 percent in 1984 to 29.61 percent in 2006 in urban areas, which is a negligible change. In the same period of study similar figures for the lowest deciles has been increased from 2.1 percent to 2.67 percent which is also a negligible achievement. For the urban areas the share of consumption has been increased from 29.24 percent in the beginning of the period to 29.65 percent, and the lowest deciles figures from 2.33 percent to 2.62 percent. In overall, for policy measures in fran, it is recommended that Gini coefficient, for its simplicity and easy understanding by the public, Theil's index and Atkinson's measure with the inequality aversion value 0.5 be used for the policy making.

Achievement of the most important goal of development planes, that is Poverty reduction and security of social welfare for all citizens, needs in depth study of factors affecting poverty. In development literature, poverty is defined as lack of social participation and social exclusion is the main concept in the discussion. As such the notion of social capital in which participation is one of three main indicators could help to clarify the reasons of unsuccessful poverty reduction programs. This article presents part of the findings of a research which its basic questions are: does social capital relates to poverty and which of the three components of social capital has the significant relation. In responding to these questions, qualitative (focused group discussion and in depth interview) and quantitative methods (questionnaire) were applied. Two villages of similar development level from Varamin area in south of Tehran were selected. The area generally is characterized by social networks formed by forced migrations of ethnic groups and nomads during Pahlavi dynasty. They have kept their traditions, customs and values and have not fully integrated with other rural dwellers in the region. Following focused group discussions the “poverty” and “poor “was defined by people. They did not perceive poverty and deprivation only as lower level of income but lack of job security from agricultural activities, limited access to education, health services and housing. Based on research findings there is an inverse relation between poverty level and three indicators (participation, integration and trust) of social capital. Trust among rural people has been reported at the medium to upper level but trust towards government institutions was at the medium to lower level. People’s participation in decision making and implementation of development project has been very low and mostly instrumental but integration among them has been rated as high. It seems lack or lower level of participation of rural dwellers in the development and implementation of the government’s projects has resulted in lower level of trust between the two and the outcomes has not helped the economic situation of the families as well as the village. Also among the indices of integration scale, there is a significant relation between violent confrontations among rural dwellers and poverty. Therefore one can conclude conflict diminishes village resources and people’s time and energy for productive work. As a result, the village (Jalilabad) which reports higher level of trust and integration and social capital has lower level of poverty and the village (Karimabad) with lower level of social capital shows more indication of poverty.

Relationship between economic growth and income distribution is one of the main economic matters that has attracted the attention of economists especially development economists to itself and different views have been expressed about it. A group believing the existence of conflict between fairly income distribution and economic growth count the much uneven income distribution as necessary condition in early growth stages because with an unbalanced income distribution, the rich who have high propensity to saving relative to the other social groups save and accumulate more capital and protect the faster growth with new investments. On the other hand, opponents of this theory ascribe incorrect the generalization this behavior to the rich in developing countries. They believe that increasing inequality don’t affect on saving and capital accumulation Also it is an obstacle in growth path through decreasing labor productivity and demand for domestic production. In this context, Kuznets claims that economic growth increases the income inequality in early stages then the inequality is balanced and it’s finally reduced. This theory has been tested in different countries and has had various results. The Kuznets hypothesis’ test in Iranian economy and obtaining interdependence between economic growth and income distribution, for the sake of justice issue in value basics and social sensitivities has considerable importance. In this article we estimated growth and distribution models in Iran by econometrics methods. Articulating the mutual relations between economic growth and income distribution is a very challenging area of economic theories. One of the most significant hypotheses about the impact of economic development on income distribution is Kuznets hypothesis. According to Kuznets hypothesis there is an inverted U shape relationship between index of income distribution and income per capita. In other words, Kuznets hypothesis states that at early phases of development the income disparity increases but in later phases of development the inequality decreases. Considering the conclusion of this study, and based on available statistical data from 1968-2003, the suggested pattern to investigate the factors that have an impact on income distribution and the level of economic inequality in Iran, is a new Model that rejects Kuznets hypothesis in Iran. According to the resultants of calculation of model 2 from table 1, it could be suggested that to reduce the level of economic inequality in Iran, economic policies must be directed to the agricultural growth, the sector that includes the less skilled and low-income segments of the population. The empirical observations imply that in the development process, the industrial sector has a pioneer role and the role of agriculture is reduced. This has pushed many countries of the world to accept policies that have negative impacts on agriculture and emphasize on transferring investment resources from agriculture to industries and general sector. (Not that the development policies in 1950s and 1960’s, favored ‘taking the excess capital from the agricultural sector’, and investing it in other developing sectors of economy). it is illustrated that how combination and share of sectors in economic growth affect on income distribution methods. One the major factors of unequal income distribution in Iran is the presence of sectoral duality. Implementing policies to create an economic balance among existing sectors, not only could reduce the present income inequality, but also could create a sustainable economic growth. These policies could cover areas such as research, irrigation and agricultural development, rural education, creation of rural infrastructures (roads, electricity, communications), and could reduce of rural poverty and regional inequality (Shifting geographical concentration). On this basis, in present conditions of our country that income distribution is imbalanced and the level of national income is below average, the distribution model along with growth or pro poor growth is strongly suggested, because poverty reduction and income growth, not only are compatible, but also are related in practice.

The Social capital can be considered as one of the major concept of development-centre approved in studying of poverty. The importance of these two social variables is to the extent that in both modern theoretical and practical approach, the production of social capital is considered as one of the most useful strategies in poverty alleviation. Therefore based on the importance of the role of the social capital and its direct relation ship with the promotion of social welfare and poverty alleviation, we test this hypothesis through a comparative study of this variable for the homilies sponsored by the Committee Emdad Imam Khomaini in Ghazvin as representative of families under poverty and rich residents of the city. This study test the hypothesis stating that there is a significant difference in the average of social capital and its components (social trust, social relations and participation and organizational membership) between the poor and the rich families. This is a survey - based study. The data is collected through questioner. The target group under the statistical study is the families sponsored by the Committee Emdad Imam Khomaini out of which a group of 311 families from the poor and 50 families from the rich have been selected by Cochran equation through random analysis a system. Data processing and the statistical analysis are conducted through the spss software package. The findings of the study show that there is a significant difference in social capital and its components between the rich and the poor. Also the finding shows that poverty has a negative strong correlation with the social capital and the poor have lower average of social capital and its all components. The social capital is approximated as the following regression analysis (equation): Social capital= 68.04+9.10 (welfare situation of family) +2.450 (gender of families chief. This research shows that the amount of social capital for individuals and groups is depended to the situation of poverty and privation. Poverty has a negative impact on social capital. The outcome of this relationship is that the effort for increasing the amount of social capital may has useful impacts on poverty reduction because, social capital in regard of convertibility process of capitals, can provide the necessary conditions for promoting the welfare level of the poor and private actors.

In this paper, the causes and the way that factors affect poverty are examined using Bayesian networks. Factors are considered include education level, family size, sex, married status and activity status of the head of the household. Applied data are extracted from the urban family’s cost and income survey in statistical center of Iran. The analyses are performed by choosing a random sample of size 500 from these data. From the data, some important variables are chosen. These include an ordinal scale categorized version of the total expenditure of the household (with four categories poor, pseudo-poor, not- poor and pseudo-rich or rich), sex (with two categories male and female), education level (with two categories illiterate and not illiterate), married status (with four categories), activity status (with four categories), kind of accommodation (with three categories) and family size (with six categories). In this paper by applying Bayesian networks’ method, which gives researcher the capability of analyzing the whole variables simultaneously, the most important factors that directly or indirectly affect the poverty of Iranian households are detected. Furthermore, the quality and the quantity of effectiveness of these factors are considered. To clarify the approach we started with an illustrative example. In this example some inferential approaches are also explained. The software HUGIN and its PC and EM algorithm capabilities are used to find the best Bayesian Network. The different approach of Bayesian Network, using the urban family’s cost and income survey of Statistical Center of Iran, is used to analyze the poverty problem. Then, in order to assess the efficient factors on Iranian families’ poverty, the suitable Bayesian Network is found and used in diagnostic analysis. Some reasoning aspects (up-down reasoning and down-up reasoning) are also presented. Some advantages in using Bayesian networks are found. These are: (i) the output is a probability which can be easily interpreted. (ii) Bayesian Networks can be guaranteed to exploit all known features of poverty problem. (iii) they can be used to reason in two different directions (up-down reasoning and down-up reasoning), as mentioned previously. (iv) the utility of the Bayesian networks graph itself is of high importance since the graph is a compact representation of the knowledge surrounding the system. The results of the analysis show that the education level and family size are the most important factors in determining the poverty level of families. In addition, by using ‘down-up’ inference, if we just consider families with poverty status being poor, we found that. ... So, the final result is that for families in absolute poverty level, the most probable cause is the low educational level or the illiterateness of the head of the household.

The relationship between fiscal policy and income distribution is a challengeable subject especially as public welfare is concerned. This paper has investigated the impact of fiscal policy and gas price on income distribution in Iran. It goes without saying that in an economic system like Iran in which oil revenue does have the most impact on, this case would have crucial role. Also in Iranian economy government sector intervention is huge and extensive therefore, economic policies (especially fiscal policy) could change the existent situation. Therefore, measuring the impact of fiscal policy is very conclusive. firstly and generally speaking, the analytical-descriptive method is used in developing this paper. Secondly, the econometric method and especially, auto regression model is used along with time series data for 1353- 1384 period. a) Gini Coefficient has declined from 49.92 to 43.60 during 1353-1357 periods. b) During 1357-1367 3-periods, we observe a considerable amount of fluctuation in Gini coefficient. c) Gini has achieved to 40.43 at the end of 1367. d) During first development program (1368-73) second (1374-78) and third development program (1379-83), Gini has not changed considerably. Gini Coefficient has decreased during 1353-57, has associated with fluctuation on 1357-67 period and has remained almost constant during 1379-1384. Therefore, this coefficient is still showing the inequality in Iranian economy. The final finding is that expansionary fiscal policy has increased the inequality in Iran, however increasing the gas price has declined inequality in it. Of course, enhancing the gas price is recommended if and only if other preliminary conditions for holding the minimum social welfare are satisfied. So the final suggestions of our paper in order to resolve some dimensions of inequality in Iranian economy would be: 1-government intervention, especially in fiscal policy (especially regarding income distribution and social welfare), should be disciplinized seriously. 2- gas pricing other things being equal,(among which are well organizing of public transportations, efficient, just taxing system and providing minimum standard of social security), should, be left to the efficient market framework.

The phenomena of poverty has been one of the most prominent issues in human cultures and societies from past to present. A lot of factors like economical slump, major unemployment, population changes, and other social- economical factors as well as ordinary methods of procuring individual demands (in the form of general subsidizing without advance provisions) cause the problem of poverty and its consequences persisting. There for identifying the trend of poverty in the last years would be to a great extend helpful in future plans of poverty cleaning. There are different ways of measuring poverty in micro and macro scale. In this study we are going to develop the macro index of poverty by maintaining two main axioms:"economic growth results in poverty decrease" and "inequality income increase results in poverty increase". Human is the intelligent creature that tries instantly for understanding his nature and environment, but because of his limited power of general reasoning is permanently faced with lack of absoluteness and certainty. There are lots of ambiguous and not precise concepts that we utter them daily through words and expressions. This ambiguity is the other reason for lack of certainty in other words, using this ambiguous language for transferring and description of knowledge. Fuzzy Set Theory has been funded and developed by Professor Zadeh on 1965. Fuzzy sets are divided into "linguistic variables" and "concepts". In this theory the expressions and propositions are presented as "if.... then" clauses. These clauses are called linguistic rules or verbal rules. Applying Fuzzy logic has two main advantages: i) avoiding complex calculations of economic evaluation models, ii) fuzzy rules are easier to understand due to it's terms related to linguistic terms. The important issue in a fuzzy modeling is a general consensus on the meaningfulness of the determining variables of the study. In this study ftrzzy logic and MATLAB software have been used to develop the annual time series trend of poverty (non-visible) in Iran in the period of the years between 1368 and 1383. In this study the Gauss function (normal) is used in 5 degrees (from very big to very short) for each variable. In average calculation, in order to take into account the possible cycles in our data, we would involve one of the data of at least 6 years duration in dynamic average. Because we are going to measure the poverty index for the period between 1368 and 1383, in order to calculate the dynamic average we would start from 1363, and for each series and each year we consider the average amount of 6 years of our data as the normal amount. Our calculations revealed that the total poverty trend in Iran was downward and the highest and lowest amount of poverty index has been occurred respectively in the years 1370 and 1382, and we have the relative maximum and minimum respectively in the years 1380 and 1372. The analysis of the poverty trend sensitivity also revealed that poverty trend is not influenced by the income distribution index. Considering the 10 years cycle of poverty trend in Iran, planning and decision making authorities are able to make change in this trend by their policy tools and define new approaches for poverty reduction. The economic growth in Iran has not a uniform trend but however through the last few years we had a better income distribution, and this resulted in more influence on poverty trend and reduction of poverty index. Iran, by accepting the Millennium development objectives of U.N. in 2000 has been obliged to poverty clean up. This means that the poverty should be reduced by half from 1990 to 2015. Diagrams show that the direct and indirect measurements of the governments has been influential, but considering the necessity of annual 3% reduction and the multiple dimensional nature of poverty, and ineffectuality of short term planning, the necessity of a comprehensive long planning for poverty reduction is felt.

Since the late 1990s, when the term of Pro-poor Growth was first introduced, the economists have developed some new approaches as to the relation between the economic growth and poverty, and the combined effect of economic growth and income inequality alleviation on poverty reduction. Recently a new topic has been raised which studies the tri-lateral relations between the three concepts of economic growth, poverty and income inequality. The pro-poor growth refers to the kind of economic growth which brings about inequality alleviation in addition to primarily benefiting the poor population - a total economic improvement of the poor population of the community. To provide definition and measurement tools for the concept, there have been some recent efforts: (Kakwani & Pernai, 2000), (Ravallion & Chen, 2003), (Son, 2003). Drawing on the Poverty Growth Curve (Son, 2003) and the Second Order Dominance, the present study seeks to find out if the economic growth of Iran during 1995-2006 was pro-poor or anti-poor. As mentioned above, for the economic growth to be pro-poor, there should be income inequality alleviation along with economic improvement of all community members. To this end, the community's income deciles are analyzed with regard to the changes in income inequality following changes in economic growth based on the Second Stochastic Dominance approach. The present paper aims to draw on Atkinson Proof to connect the Generalized Lorenz Curve with economic growth and inequality. In the following, based on the data from the Urban and Rural Households Income and Expenditure 1996-2005, the poverty growth curve and Lorenz curve are drawn and analyzed for Iranian households for the mentioned time period. According to the outcomes, the average income growth was pro-poor in the years 2000, 2003 and 2005 for urban areas. In the year 2002 the economic growth in all deciles increased but income equality decreased. And the average income growth was pro-poor in the years 1999 to 2002 for rural areas that's to say, in the mentioned years the poor population enjoyed more income increase than the rest of society and the income gap got narrower. Obviously, the index was anti-poor for the remaining years of the reference period. During the 1996-2005 economic growth in most years has been pro‌poor in both urban and rural areas.

This study aims to explore the meaning reconstruction consequences economic changes in Ouramanat - Ta^t of Iranian Kurdistan. Interpretive approach was used as conceptual framework to explain the various aspects of inquiry. According to Interpretive approach, the humans are social beings who create meaning and who constantly and reflexively make sense of their worlds. Therefore, the nature of social reality is constituted of the fluid definition of situation created by human interaction. As a result, the aim of social inquiry is to understand and describe the meaningful social actions which are permanently constructed and reconstructed. Ouraman Takht is a rural and highly mountainous region located in southwest of Kurdistan province of han. The economic system of region is mainly based on husbandry, gardening and farming. However, some new economic activities have been emerging since several years ago which in turn changed and challenged the traditional economic system. So, it is important to study the Ouramian point of view towards the context, process and consequences of the new economic changes, Qualitative research methodology was employed and ethnographic fieldwork method, including of direct observation, participant observation and in depth interview, was adopted as practical strategy of conducting research. Also, grounded theory was applied to analyze data and produce a data based theory stemming from the data. The grounded theory was originally introduced by Glaser and Strauss in 1967 in opposition to the positivist theoretical principles. It is an inductive procedure to theory building rather than theory testing in terms of three different stages of data coding, containing of open coding, axial coding and selective coding, which finally lead to emerge a theory based on data. Eight main categories emerged from the collected data and coded in the axial coding process these are Ecological Problems, Shortage of Resources, Permanent Poverty, Expansion of Service Sector, Labor Migration, State based Economy, Embracing Economic Changes, and Comparative - Optimistic Evaluation. The core category extracted during selective coding process was taken to be "Subsistence’s Improvement", which captures all main categories and the whole trend of economic changes in the society studied. According to this category, People of Ouraman consider the consequences of economic changes as something positive and functional for their live. The results have been presented in a paradigm model containing of conditions, interactions and consequences around the core category. In this model the Ecological Problems, Shortage of Resources and Permanent Poverty are considered as contextual conditions the Expansion of Service Sector and Labor Migration are regarded to be the interactions, and the State based Economy, Embracing Economic Changes, and Comparative - Optimistic Evaluation are taken into account as consequences of economic changes in Ouraman region of Iranian Kurdistan.

This research is seeking to answer a basic question: "Have three five years Socio-Economic plans in first, second, third economic development could create poverty changes in Semnan province or not (1368 - 83)? Doing so, poverty line and the poverty indices are estimated concerning urban and rural areas during 1st (1989-1993), 2nd (1995-1999) and 3rd (2000-2004) plans. In order to estimate poverty line and the poverty indices, the expenditure-income data, price indices concerning urban and rural areas during three socio-economic plans (1989-2004) is used. Consumer behavior is analyzed by dividing the total urban and rural consumption into 8 main commodity groups: the food and beverage, clothing, housing, housing furniture’s and services, health and medical cares, transport and communications, entertainment and educations, and other commodities. Then, households poverty line, and Head-Count, Poverty Gap and Foster, Greer, Thorbecke index have been found based on household survey data using the Liner Expenditure System (LES) of equations with iterative seemingly unrelated Regression (ISUR) method corresponding to rural and urban areas of Semnan province. Poverty lines in urban and rural areas during the three socio-economic plans have had upward trends in urban areas, it has increased by more than 17 times and has reached from 1042791 Rials at the first year of the 1st plan to 17761513 Rials at the end of the 3rd plan. In rural areas, the poverty line was 691931 Rials at the first year of the 1st plan which by 18 times increase has reached to 12409611 Rials at the end of the 3rd plan. One of the main reasons of the increase has been the high inflation rate. Although, the poverty lines in urban areas have always been higher than that in the rural areas, the rural Head count poverty has been more than urban, but the poverty gap and FGT index in urban have been more than those in rural areas. All poverty indices have increased during the 1st development plan and reduced during the 2nd and 3rd plans.

Economic development, income inequality and health issues have integration. The relationship between population health, inequality in income, distribution and economic growth has attracted much attention during the last two decades. In other word, economic development, economic growth and income inequality as socioeconomic parameters or social determinants health (SDH) are effective for supply and promotion of health. In resent decade’s whit transformation in illnesses epidemiology from infectious diseases to chronic diseases, attention to social environmental and mental causes increased instead of clinical causes. The objectives purpose of this paper is to examine that relationship and regression analysis between income inequality, economic development and economic growth index with health index using Iran time- series data. We analysis included 31years, 1355-1385. In this study used of correlation and regression analyses. For the selected years, Predictor’s variables are economic development, economic growth and income inequality. And dependent variables are life expectancy at berth and under 5year children mortality rate. In this study we used of economic growth as control variable. Necessary data and information for study correlated from the central bank and statistical center of han. For preparing the data used of EXCEL software, first we collected primitive and fresh data then interred theme EXCEL software to gain necessary data. The analysis of correlated data was done with the help of SPSS software. h). the propos of present study is analysis relationships between study variables. Gini coefficient has significant coloration (p<.001) with life expectancy (R=-0.73, P=0.000) also with under 5 years children mortality rat(R=0.77, P=0.000). And economic development has significant coloration (p<.05) with life expectancy (R=0.38, P=0.03) also with under 5year children mortality rat (R=-0.4, P=.0027). After used of partial coloration economic growth shown significant coloration (in p<0.01signification level). When regression analyses was don, observed that income inequality is stronger predictor to variance health variables (P=0.75, p=0.79). the important difference of this study is to various indexes. This character helps to have deeper knowledge about variables. Decreasing of income inequality and increase economic development will cause of increase in health indexes (increase in life expectancy and decrease in fewer than 5year children mortality rat). According to data income inequality trend is decreasing and economic growth and economic development trends are variable. But health status trend is increasing. Although decreasing in economic growth on 1356‌1368, health indices were promoted. Because, during in this years, Islamic revolution governments whit society approach adopted social policies such as universal education, health care social security, and social services such as subsides that resulting to increase in income inequality. By attention to findings of regression analyses, before that economic growth interred to model, income inequality was stronger variable than economic development (P=0.75, p=0.79). But with existed economic growth, economic development was strongest variable. Generally, seem for health promotion, we must be attention to both economic development and income redistribution issues.

In this article the effects of destruction of abnormal quarter of "Ghorbat" on social capital among residents of Khaksefid will be surveyed with due regard to the existing theories about the social capital (theories such as Coleman’s, Burdieu’s, Fukuyama’s, Putnam’s, Woolcock’s, Narayan’s and so on), related concepts of the suburbanization and characteristics of suburbanization quarters. Ghorbat was the name of an area which was formed after the revolution in 1979 parallel to the expanding of khaksefid which was due to the lack of plan and supervision on urban constructions. The primary residents who were the gipsy settled in this area after the unauthorized constructions in Khaksefid, expanded quickly and turned the Ghorbat to a center of deviation, especially in case of narcotic substances. In order to obtain this goal (measurement of social capital), three indicators consisting social confidence, social correlation, and social participation have been chosen as main indicators of social capital for measuring the amount in past (before demolition of Ghorbat quarter) and present time. This research is of descriptive-analytic type that has been done by survey method and the data gathered by a questionnaire coined by researcher. The amount of social capital in the past and the present time has been measured by a quasi-panel design plan. The statistical population included of all the old residents of Khaksefid (higher than 25 years old) who had lived at least 10 years in this quarter. Sample size consists of 380 persons chosen by stratified size appropriate random sampling such that Khaksefid quarter was divided to three supposed areas (according to the distance of residence to the demolished area): a) Residents up to 300 meters distance. b) Residents between 300-600 meters. c) Residents further than 600 meters from the demolished area d) The questionnaires have been filled in accordance with number of each supposed area. e) Also the hypotheses of research have been considered by T test, Variance and correlation confident. f). The research showed that the amount of social capital of Residents of khaksefid was stronger in kinship level than neighborhood, ethnic and local level. Also it was stronger among women than men, among elders than youngsters and among the less-educated than the high or well educated ones. The Results obtained from this research showed that, regarding the past (before demolition of Ghorbat quarter), the social capital among residents of Khaksefid has been decreased and the more the distance of residents form demolished area, the less decrease in social capital occurred. It means that the demolition of this area has more effects on the residents who have lived near this area and their social capital has been decreased more.

Illicit drug use has been a continuous problem in Iran despite efforts to curb it. Researcher has looked into the relationship that exists between influential social factors and addiction. This is a summary of an extended research on sociological study of drug related crimes in Mazandaran Province. The main focus of the study has been to identify and analyze the social correlates of drug related crimes rate. It is an established fact that drug addiction has been increased in Mazandaran Province in the recent years. The researcher has been designed on the base of response to this question "what are the causes of drug related crimes rate variations among cities of Mazandaran Province?" The research unit of analysis is city and all cities of Mazandaran Province between 1375 -1380 have been studied and analyzed. The hypotheses are based on research theoretical framework. The research method of study was longitudinal-comparative method, based on secondary data. The data were secondary, cross-sectional data that relied on the Police Headquarters data. The data were later transferred to a statistical program to conduct data manipulation and statistical analysis. In order to perform the data analysis the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 13 was used. The results show that there is a significant relationship between smugglers and drug addiction rate. A variable that frequently appeared as significant on the analyses was availability of drugs. Caution should be used when interpreting such significance since this variable is closely related to other variables and might be capturing the same effect as others. Finding a significant relationship would serve to establish the factors leading to problematic behavior and to improve existing programs for treatment and prevention. The findings of this study provide an insight as to other concurrent factors that affect illicit drug use. Theoretically, the study has been based on structural functionalism approach. The purpose of this study was to establish if there was an association between social factors in macro level and illicit drug use in Mazandaran province. Five of the hypotheses proved statistically significant, they include: effect of smuggler’s activity rate on drug addiction rate, effect of availability of drugs on drug addiction rate, effects of urbanity and availability of drugs on social disorganization, and the effect of smuggler’s activity rate on availability of drugs. The two hypotheses that were not statistically significant are the effect of the urbanity and social disorganization on drug addiction rate. Path analysis results indicate that availability of drugs, smuggler’s activity, urbanism and social disorganization variables are the most important variables for explanation of drug related crimes in Mazandaran Province, respectively. Several implications can be derived from this study one of such public implications is the modification of preventive programs designed to reduce illicit drug use.

The present paper attempts at examining the relationships which exist between the article’s main concepts namely folklore, cultural capital and tourism. However, cultural capital originally was coined by French sociologist Pierre Bordure to include non-economic factors education in particular that may be responsible for poverty and other negative characteristics of the poor, the concept later on was expanded to cover attitudes, characters, and customs. As a result folklore of a society may also be regarded as a form of cultural capital. The article then deals with the importance of tourism especially due to globalization experienced by all cultures around the world. Today tourism is regarded as the most important source of national income. Both income and occupation multipliers embedded in tourism will serve as positive factors facilitating development. Finally the article Reviews however briefly the Iran’s case as a society that is very rich in various forms of tourism’s attractions which makes her desirable as a tourism destination. The article is based on literature review. As result it may be regarded as an analytical and descriptive research, aiming to enhance the existing familiarity with tourism and a number of other important concepts. In Iran, tourism industry is a neglected domain. Thus the most important objective of tourism industry is to emphasize the importance of such a domain as far as development is concerned. The other important objective is to enhance the general public’s knowledge concerning the role of tourism as far as income and job creation are involved. Despite the fact that the article is based on a review of literature a number of findings may be mentioned. First, tourism industry at the time of economic globalization and the coming of automated industries that create very limited number of jobs, may act as the most reliable source of job creation. Second, tourism when carefully and consciously planned is a nature friendly undertaking. Thus, third it may be regarded as a component of sustainable development.