فصلنامه نقد و نظر
سال چهاردهم شماره 4 (پیاپی 56، زمستان 1388)

Martyr Sadr had a peculiar understanding of probability concept which can be called “synoptic interpretation of probability”. In previous issue of Naqd wa Nazar the question of consistency of Martyr Sadr’s particular interpretation of probability concept with postulations of Probability theory was dealt with in detail. In this article I discuss whether his particular interpretation can provide a comprehensive and consistentexplanation of our intuitions and immediate knowledge in ascribing probability to various events. In this respect synoptic interpretation faces three main problems: the way in which the alternatives of synoptic knowledge are arranged, the way uncertain indications affect on probability and finally how to ascribe probability in contexts of continuity. Martyr Sadr drew attention to the first two problems and provided remarkable answers to them. His solution for the first problem though is of high intuitive force it is not formulated in a precise way. Besides, it cannot solve the problem in all cases. How successful Martyr Sadr’s solution is depends on adequacy of his method in solving the problem of induction. Meanwhile, Sadr made no mention of the third problem and thus made no attempt to solve it.

This article is an attempt to examine the concept of obligation in Kantian ethic from three viewpoints of semantics, epistemology and ontology. On the basis of semantics, obligationis an act one is required to do. Requirement, then, is the a necessity of a free act under the rule of reason. Epistemologically speaking, reason is the source of ethical rulesand obligations. Morel rules are a priori synthetic ones and categorical imperative is that by which one can recognize his own moral duties. Reason as Kant believed not lays down butdiscovers moral rules. Ontologically Kant held ethical realism. He lists different kinds of duties. In his view the categorical moral rules are not conditioned to any end and thus notsusceptible of any exception. There is no possibility of conflict among the moral obligations. Ethical theory of Kant is based on different epistemological, humanological, and axiological assumptions.

Happiness is one the main concerns of human being. It can be discussed from three different angles: that of semantics and examination of this concept; from ontological point of view and the study of certainty or otherwise of happiness, the realm of itsrealization, its being innate, volitional or free and the role of virtues in happiness and similar related issues. Still another way of dealing with happiness is that of epistemology examining the ways in which one can be aware of his or other people’s happiness. In this article an attempt was made in dealing with the problem from all three aspects according to Al- Farabi who can be called philosopher par excellence, the origin of his theory and finally a critical review on his theory.

From the early times the Bible was considered by the Christians as infallible and devoid of any fault. In modern time, however, the place of Bible was undermined and a skeptical approach was taken toward it in such a way that many Christians and even Christian theologian have no belief in its infallibility. This question is of importance from two respects: first, the place of Bible in Christian faith and its undermining in modern times. On the other hand, such discussions draw the attention of Muslim thinkers in such a way that some of them began to apply the same questions to the Holy Quran. The present article attempts to discuss briefly the significance and importance of “infallibility of the Bible” explaining some problems and events that contributed to the rise of such discussions.

The Protestant ethic and Spirit of Capitalism is one of the most important works in the field of comparative studies and sociology of religion that it is still new and a matter of interest for dialogue particularly in undeveloped countries. Weber’s ideaslike Marx’s and others, as one may know, were misunderstood and misconstrued by some in Iran. This article is thus concerned to give a new understanding and exact description of Weber’s theory in the above-mentioned work. Avoiding any judgment orcriticism this article suffices to make an attempt in doing justice to his theory.

Liberation Theology is a movement in Christian theology that has rooted in circumstances prevailing during 1960s and 1970s of Latin America. The most important reason for failure and misery of the poor countries of Latin American region, according to this theology, are both despotic and military governments of the region that are affiliated to and supported by superpowers and colonialism of northern American and European countries.Liberation theology emphasizes on independence and the need for removing poverty through struggle, education and giving necessary awareness to masses at large. According to this theology the Church should get her legitimacy through relievingthe poor from poverty. It urged that the Bible be read and experienced from the poor perspective. This article is an attempt to introduce liberation theology explaining its distinguishing features with contemporary Christian theology.

The First Martyr and the Second Martyr are in our culture known as prominent doctors of Islamic Law and their intellectual and theological dimensions are not properly studied yet. These two figures are in total agreement and harmony in their legal points of view and, as it is well known, the Second Martyr acts as the Commentator and great interpreter of legal ideas of the First Martyr. Theologically and doctrinally speaking, however, thereare striking differences of opinion between them that can be recognized only by consulting Shiite theological heritage in remote past. This article is to reflect the depth of Shiite history of thought and represent the theological differences in the Schoolsof Qom and Baghdad and later in school of Al-Hillah, showing that this divergence originates from epistemological foundations of Islamic theology.