نشریه تاریخ اسلام در آینه پژوهش
سال هفتم شماره 3 (پیاپی 27، پاییز 1389)

The aim of the uprisings of the Penitents and Mokhtar was to seek vengeance for killing Imam Hussein (A.S) and the leaders of these uprisings had different viewpoints and different revolutionary methods. The penitents were more inclined to compensate for their heedlessness towards those were responsible for the massive bloodshed in the plain of Taf (Karbala) and they applied very strict and harsh standards in mobilizing forces. Hence, they believed that the only way to achieve their aim was to sacrifice their lives, and to them, the end and the means had equal significance. The penitent's religious viewpoint and the way they proposed to achieve their aim did not enjoy the acceptance the people of Kufa at that time and so they could not achieve the aim of uprising. In contrast, Mokhtar took over Kufa and punished most of the killers who took part in the massive bloodshed in Taf plain (Karbala), using acumen, foresight, and different means,though, he was conquered by Zubayri troops and his uprising did not last long.

The present paper tries to indentify the factors influencing the development of Sufism and explains its outcomes in Seljukid period. In this period, Sufis enjoyed the support of the ruling class, and jurists tried to incorporate religious law into the esoteric path of Sufism. Furthermore, the doctrinal confusion caused the society to face crisis which prepared the grounds for the development of a sort of Sufism compatible with people's morale. The development of Sufism has positive and negative effects, both of which have been investigated.

One of the wrong customs and rules of the culture of the pre- Islamic era was the etiquette of divorce, against which Islam fought. The decadent position of woman and dominance of patriarchy in society in the pre-Islamic era were behind the cruel attitude shown towards women in divorce system. Divine law of Islam reformed and modified most of the divorce rules of that period, giving special attention to woman's genuine identity and humanity. Practically, Islam denounced some types of divorces common in the period of paganism, confirmed some other types and recommended that women's rights be observed and it promulgated some other types. The present research, discussing and explaining the different types of divorces of pre-Islamic era, and pointing out the effects of the doctrines ofIslam on the evolution of divorce system in that era, seeks to prove that the change in the divorce system of the pre-Islamic era is attributed to the advent of Islam.

The Abbasid Dawat organization and the Representation Organization of the Twelvers were two secret organizations which were active in different regions of the Islamic territories. Shiite Imams, when alive, used to communicate with Shiites through the Representation Organization. The Abbasids, too, used emissaries to disseminate their ideas. An accurate historical judgment about the function of Shiite Imams and Shiites, and that of the Abbasids and their followers would be possible through a comparative analysis of these two organizations. The main question with which this paper concerned is: what are the differences and similarities between these two organizations with respect to the stages of formation and causes of emergence? The Abbasids were inheritors of Abu Hashim's Dawat Organization, while the Twelvers themselves established their own Representation Organization. Among the causes of emergence of these two organizations were the struggle to achieve their aims, suppression, the activities of the rivals, good paved grounds, necessity of communication with followers, and gathering finances.The difficulty of communication between Imam (A.S) and Shiites, and preparation for the occultation period were other causes of emergence of the Representation Organization.

One of the most important modern sources of historical studies is Ibn AbilHadid's explanation of Najhul-Balagha. The authors of the present paper, reviewing the historical sources IbnIbilHadid has cited, mention some of the features of his historical method, and in some works provide exposition of the nature of the source and whether or not it exists. Careful studies of these works in particular can be made on the basis of this brief introduction.

Taking Damascus as the capital of Caliphate during the Umayyad period prepared the ground for developing direct relations between Caliphs and Christians. Since most of the Syrians in those days were Christians, Caliphs had to follow a kind of permissive policy towards Christians. The permissive attitude of most Umayyad Caliphs towards Christians and not imposing social and religious restrictions on them lent the Christians high status in Umayyad period. Due to Muslim’s lack of knowledge of governmental affairs in subjugated territories. Christians dominated Muslim's administrative institutions in Umayyad period. Furthermore, due to their skill in medicine and proficiency in Greek and Syrian, Christians had an important role in developing sciences in medicine and translation of books in Umayyad period. The present paper reviews the social, economical, religious, and political conditions of Zimmi Christians in Umayyad period and investigates their role in developing Muslim's sciences.