فصلنامه رفاه اجتماعی
پیاپی 40 (بهار 1390)

This study has compared the quality of life of head-of-household women supported by Welfare Organization those who had service jobs in Tehran, 1386 (2007). It was a cross-sectional study. One-hundred and twenty head-ofhousehold women that were supported by Welfare Organization and their counterparts with service jobs were randomly selected. To collect data, a demographic checklist and WHO’s Quality of Life questionnaire (WHOQOL- 100) were used. Having job was found to increase quality of life of head-of-household women. The physical health, psychological health, and social relationships had direct influences on quality of life of head-of-household women, while the environment hadn’t have any relation with quality of life. Quality of life among head-of-household women is better when they had a service job, rather than being supported by Welfare Organization.

Nowadays, governments put citizens in their first priority in order to protect their stability. Undoubtedly, citizen empowerment is one of the most important duties of government. Empowerment of women as half of the population with extra influence on culture and human development has been concentrated. Scholars indicate empowerment of women have five stages: welfare, access, consciousness, participation, and control. Head-of-household women are important section of citizens. In order to empower citizens, paying attention to them has great importance. It seems that head-of-household women have too many problems that obstruct them to access a sustainable development. They have characteristics that can be used to human development because they use their income to improve family’s nutrition, welfare, and education. So, increasing their income seems to have direct and positive impact on family’s situation. In this article we have tried to identify factors that impact on empowerment of head-of-household women, and prepare a guideline for whom responsible for them. Current research is a survey. Training, skill learning, income-earning plans, giving stock, giving loan and noncash aids were independent variables and empowerment was dependent one. Random sampling was used and 240 questionnaires were completed by women in Tehran and Karaj that received help from Imam Khomeini Relief Committee and Welfare Organization and also Tehran municipality. To determine validity of scale we took advantages of construct validity and factor analysis. The reliability index of Chronbach’s alpha was 0.92 for head-of-household women empowerment and 0.89 for independent factors. Spearman correlation and structural equations model was used for statistical analysis. There was a correlation between independent variables and empowerment and also among independent variables, meaning that strengthening one of them will improve the others. Training and income-earning plans had the most impact on empowerment of head-of-household women. Causality model indicates that training and income-earning plans had positive impacts for our participants. Because of having several roles, head-of-household women don’t have time for education and usually are less educated than other women. So, training has positive effect on their family. As head-of-household women most big problem usually is economic, so any solution to reduce this problem will be very helpful. Contrary to scholars’ expectations, other hypotheses were rejected. We think the loan’s amount was insufficient and it takes too much time to receive it. Furthermore, a bailsman was needed for receiving loan. Accessing to resource is a key factor of empowering head-of-household women, so noncash aids seemed to be effective. But it was rejected too. Talking with head-ofhousehold women showed that the women’ honor was not considered when giving them noncash aids. Also the notification of giving these aids was not suitable and because of that, a hostile climate was raised there.

Empowerment is an effective method used by most countries of the world to achieve sustainable development (Parsons, 2003). It’s emphasized in Forth Development Program of Iran, especially for poor people, including headof- household women. This study aims investigating the methods used in empowerment programs of social support agencies. The method of this investigation is descriptive. The research population includes all head-of-household women participated in the empowerment programs of Imam Khomeini Relief Committee and Welfare Organization between years 1384 (2006) and 1386 (2008), all of them were 50 and 44 families, respectively, in the end of 1386. The study showed that empowerment programs for head-of-household women’s led to employment and enhancing their income level. Also, occupation training can result in independence from support agencies. Moreover, psychological empowerment plan led improvements in a variety of psychological dimensions, i.e. self-efficacy, self-worth, self-esteem, life control, decisionmaking power, and problem-solving, all of them resulting to more adjustment. Empowerment programs for head-of-household women can lead to employment, enhancement of income level, dependency reduction, and psychological empowerment.

Employment, especially female employment, has become an important, influencing issue in decisions and plans in the country in recent decades. This article reviews changes in female employment in Iran. For this purpose, the indicator of female participation in labor force in World Development Indicators series, which is provided by the World Bank, is used. Shift-share analysis method was applied to analyze data over two periods 1985-1995 and 1995-2005. Results indicate that over time the structure of female employment has been fundamentally changed. So that, within two decades the share of women in the labor force has increased from 19.3 percent in 1985 to 33.8 percent in 2005. Also, during the periods the female employment growth rate had been more than the country's share of the growth for Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The disproportionate growth seems to be due to competition and the structure positive growing, i.e. during the period the growth and mobility of women in economic activities in Iran was positive and also more than MENA region.

In Iranian society, women as half of the population play an important role in employment and social development. Hence, addressing the issue of women’s working and its relationship with their health status is inevitable. On the other hand, evidence suggests that in addition to medical interventions, health depends on socioeconomic conditions like job classifications. It’s a cross-sectional study on 160 women working in welfare centers in Tehran. Participants were recruited using a multistage cluster method. To measure the variables, checklist of personal data with demographic variables and General Health Questionnaire-28 (GHQ-28) were used. Between mental health and job classification, there was a significant correlation (p<0.005). Comparing job classifications on a one-to-one basis showed a significant difference in mental health between manager and expert women, so that, managers had less mental health than experts. Managers and policy makers of organizations, as well as health planners, should pay more attention to job which seems to be a social determinant of women’s mental health.

Family as a social institution with important roles in educating people can promote or deteriorate social health and stability. Social deviances are signs of dysfunctions in society structure. Regarding the increasing growth of home escape, detecting family factors related to this phenomenon is the aim of this research. Population of this survey includes runaway children under 18, male or female, living in centers affiliated to Welfare Organization, correction centers, and Khorramabad central prison. Control group comprised of other children under 18 who lived in Khorramabad. The size of both samples were 48. Based on multiple regression analysis, there was a statistically significant relationship between being runaway children and living in broken homes, domestic violence, parents’ lack of supervision on the children, family conflict, parents’ criminal history, and parents’ addiction. Children’s gender had not any relationship. Domestic violence had the strongest relationship with being runaway children.

Leaving home and family by teenagers and young people without their parents’ and legal guardians’ permission is a kind of reaction to a situation which is unpleasant, unbearable, and unchangeable for them. This is a defense mechanism to decrease life difficulties and get rid of harmful situations and achieve demands and dreams, but evidences indicate that running away not only doesn’t decrease girls’ problems but also enters them to a damaging social cycle which leads to many negative subsequences for them and their families. This article is on the basis of a field study findings and analyzes subsequences of girls’ running away from home by using 3 methods together: survey, case study, and focus group research. After running away, girls encounter with some consequences such as school leaving, relationship with opposite sex, sexual abuse, prostitution, membership in gangs, depression, self-mutilation and suicide, drug or alcohol abuse, and being rejected by family; they all entangle them in many emotional and social damages. The present study provides the results in 3 levels of individual, family, and social consequences, because girls mostly run away from home with no program for future and insufficient awareness of consequences. These lead to numerous inevitable problems and damages for them.

The aim of this study was investigating efficacy of group counseling based on sources of self-knowledge on increasing self-esteem of high school girl students. This study was an experimental one using a pre-test post-test design with control group. Participants consisted of 24 high school girl students who were selected using a multistage sampling method on the basis of the scores achieved from the Pop self-esteem test (PSI). Then, participants were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Participants in the experimental group were given 14 sessions of group counseling while the control group received no intervention. Both groups were tested again after 10 days of the last session. Results of self esteem test were analyzed through comparing and analysis of covariance. Group counseling based on sources of self-knowledge had increased girl students self-esteem (p<0.001). The students in experimental group had shown a considerable increase in their self-esteem, suggesting the efficacy of this intervention.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy of cognitive behavioral group training of life skills on mental health of women with handicapped spouses in Isfahan. The study was experimental with pretest-posttest design with control group. Participants included 80 women with handicapped spouses in Isfahan who were supported by Welfare Organization. These women selected with random sampling and randomly assigned in groups. Measurement instrument was GHQ-28. The results suggested significant differences (F=84.19, p=.001) between the groups, indicating that cognitive behavioral group training of life skills had significant effects on mental health of women with handicapped spouses.

We reviewed the public health interventions for preventing domestic violence in women and assessed efficacy of these interventions. We searched articles in PubMed, Scopus databases, and related systematic reviews in Cochrane database by the means of related key words: domestic violence, intimate partner violence, partner abuse, spouse abuse, battered women, and sexual abuse. Also, references list and papers of experts were searched. By reviewing, analyzing, and classifying the related interventions, we assessed their efficacy. The results were analyzed from 15 articles and 2 systematic reviews in which the impact of public health intervention for prevention or decreasing domestic violence in women had been studied. There are two types of interventions to help women experiencing or have experienced domestic violence: system-centered intervention (such as empowering staff to identify and manage the domestic violence cases), and women-centered intervention (such as education and psychological and therapeutic counseling for women). Findings showed that these interventions are effective for prevention or decreasing domestic violence cases. This study showed that educating and empowering public health staff increased the rates of identifying and managing domestic violence cases. We also found that education about predisposing factors of domestic violence and communicational and adaptive skills to women led to decreasing in domestic violence cases.

In the past decades, by focusing on the positive and effective role of economic entrepreneurship in the development of society, developed countries and, in more recent decades, a few developing countries have considered deriving benefits from this potential in combating economic difficulties such as recession, inflation, and unemployment. Entrepreneurship can serve as a wellknown approach for decreasing the unemployment level of youngsters and especially women, thus it is a starting point for planning to promote women’s entrepreneurship in the present situation of Iran. Data have been collected from reputable internal and external sources and internet. Dollar of America is used for comparing financial data. Programs to promote women’s entrepreneurship have been studied in six developed and two developing countries. A model for promoting Iranian women’s entrepreneurship has been presented.

The crisis of sexual offences particularly rape against women has been debatable for police, judicial, governmental, and nongovernmental organizations. Rape in both developed and developing countries especially in Iran includes a noticeable number of unreported violence. Based on public opinion women themselves are the main causes of this crime. Even in most cases victims are punished. Despite the large amount of the victimization, not adequate arrangements have been adopted by policy makers, to support these victims. Moreover, a humiliating and hesitantly treatment to these victims and not paying attention to their statements in criminal justice system caused them to be at the risk of secondary victimization.

The purpose of this research was to determine expenditure distribution and inequality changes in Tehran. It separately explored expenditures distribution for health, education, and food in rural and urban areas from 1989 till 2006. Using Household Expenditure Survey conducted by Statistical Center of Iran, expenditure distribution and inequality changes for urban and rural areas in Tehran and whole of the country within the time span of 1989 to 2006 were calculated. Gini Coefficient and Theil's Index were calculated and the results were compared. Inequality in health and education expenditures are too severe (Gini=0.6-0.8) but, food and gross distribution expenditure are more equal (Gini=0.3-0.4). There was a significant difference between urban and rural areas in Tehran for gross expenditures. Heath expenditures distribution in urban of country was more equitable than Tehran, but in rural areas, there was an adverse condition. Regarding education expenditures, there was only a significant difference between rural areas in Tehran and whole of the country that means distribution expenditure in whole of the country in more equitable. With respect to the calculated indices, there are severe inequality in health and education expenditures both in Tehran and whole of the country, but a nearly equitable distribution about food and gross expenditures. These results show that food expenditures have a significant relationship with gross expenditures and therefore, food expenditure shows the real consumption of the households. For these, policymakers have to pay more attention to health and education expenditures in targeting subsidies.

Income inequality affects consumption structure via changes in the composition of expenditure basket. Shocks, fluctuations, disparities, and dispersions of income inequality, is expected to be transmitted to consumption expenditures. These shocks might induce inequalities in consumption expenditures. This paper tries to measure the amount of such consumption expenditures inequalities that are derived from income inequality. To measure the consumption expenditures inequality and income inequality, the variance of logs is employed. For this purpose, Iranian urban households’ data of the period of 1982 to 2007 is used. To analyze relations between variables, panel data methodology is applied. All fluctuations of income distribution do not translate in consumption expenditure distribution. The distribution of households’ consumption expenditure in comparison to the distribution of income is less subjected to fluctuations and variations.

How indicators of poverty have reacted to the economic variables in urban areas? The intensity of each of these economic variables on urban poverty is to what extent? The main purpose of this study is assessing "the effect of macroeconomic variables on urban poverty". The study is based on macroeconomic data over the years 1984 to 2006 and developed an econometric model identifying the effect of economic variables on poverty in urban areas. First the relationship between economic variables and poverty as general was expressed, and then, for the analysis of the role of economic variables on urban poverty, an econometric model is created. The increase in GDP per capita, construction and current costs of state, and direct and indirect taxation cause to decrease urban poverty, while the increase in unemployment rate cause to increase urban poverty. Unemployment rate causes to increase both poverty indexes in urban areas, although its effect on head count index is more. The unemployment is considered as the main factor of poverty in urban areas. The effect of unemployment rate on the percentage of the poor is higher than the poverty gap.

Economics of crime is an interdisciplinary topic that is intended to analyze crimes economically. Regarding the increase in crimes rates in our country, a comprehensive study of the causes of crime, especially economic crimes such as robbery is necessary, because it is directly related to the economy and accurate understanding of causal relationship between the two will help policymakers in planning for a better society. Based on available statistics and estimates based on regression models using OLS, the relationship between unemployment and theft is explained. There was a positive relationship between robbery and unemployment. In addition, there was a direct relationship between robbery index and the proportion of people in urban areas and divorce rate, but a negative relationship for households’ monthly income. Unemployment, in addition to its direct costs such as unemployment insurance costs, and costs associated with reduced labor skills and expertise, imposes another cost which is because of an increase in property crimes particularly robbery.