نشریه معرفت اخلاقی
پیاپی 7 (تابستان 1390)

There are different approaches to criticize religious ethics. One of these approaches is to explain the damages of religion to morals, which seeks to reject the religious ethics and prove the secular ethics instead. Such issues as moral instability, the discriminatory character of religious ethics, the stability of religions moral laws, and the alienation are discussed in this regard. Expounding and analyzing the most important issues which are considered as the damages of religion to morals, the present paper defends religious ethics and proves its position in different moral schools. Although some of the aforementioned issues are considered as the advantages of religious ethics, critics claim that they are damages to morals.

What are the relations between religion and morals? Is it the case that there is no relation between them? Or do they reconcile and cooperate with each other? Do they negate or support each other? The present paper explores the kind of relationship exists between religion and ethics. In doing so, it offers the conceptology (semantic analysis) of religion and ethics and categorizes the views on the relationship between religion and ethics into four groups: distinction, contradiction, conformity, and interaction. Finally, it discusses the preferred viewpoint which is the combination of conformity and interaction. The interaction theory is discussed in two parts: the religion in the need of ethics and vice versa.

Rationality is taken to be the man's most fundamental characteristics and the basic foundation of Mullā Ṣadrā's moral system, because he believes that theoretical reason, not practical reason, makes the man superior to other creatures. According to Mullā Ṣadrā, man can gradually expand his existence, thereby becoming more moral by using the theoretical reason and acquiring wisdom. Therefore, he holds that moral weakness is rooted in existential poverty (need) and the existential poverty stems from neglectingthe blessing of reason, especially the theoretical reason. Adopting other basic foundations such as reason, understanding, will, and the man as being the end, Kant has a different anthropological viewpoint and holds that practical rationality or will is the man's most valuable characteristic and the criterion for the realization of his humanity and perfection. The present paper seeks to show the position of theoretical reason from Mullā Ṣadrā's viewpoint and the position of the will or practical reason from Kant's viewpoint and to compare these two attitudes.

The philosophical ethics in the Islamic world is greatly influenced by Hellenistic thoughts. However, Muslim thinkers have developed and enriched this moral attitude through reflection and contemplation. In hisearly phase of thought, Ghazali has been very influential in developing this attitude by writing the book entitled" Mizān Al- Amal, (the criterion for deeds) in the context of philosophical ethics. He has tried to reexamine, correct, and expound the moral virtues and vices by accepting the Platonicself-knowledge - that is, the division of man's powers and faculties into rational soul, pugnacious soul, and concupiscent soul- and his four virtues. By wisdom he means practical wisdom (phronesis)which is contrary to the views and thoughts of Yaqub Ibn Miskawayh and Moula Mahdi Narāqi. Furthermore, he believes that the virtue of justice basically does not go from one extreme to the other and the only vice against it is "injustice". Among his other beliefs is that there is not sub-virtue under the virtue of justice. This belief, like the Avicenna's belief which has been explained by Jalāl Al-din Dawāni, is due to the fact that he considers the justice as the sum of three virtues not an independent virtue.

Applied ethics is a new discipline. Although several works have been composed and some sources have been cited as "applied ethics" in the western world, it seems that there is no clear and accurate definition of the discipline. Therefore, many readers confuse it with practical ethics, professional ethics, thematic ethics and the like. While providing a clear and accurate definition of this discipline, the present paper tries to clarify the negative and positive aspects of its limits and its relationship with such issues as meta-ethics, and normative ethics. Generally speaking, it seems that applied ethics is different from such disciplines and issues as normative ethics, practical ethics, thematic ethics, and the like. Applied ethics consist in the use of basic fundamentals and criteria of moral value judgment. The present paper discusses and analyzes the basic fundamentals for value judgment in meta-ethics and criteria of value judgment in normative ethics.

Man has not only relationship with his God but also with himself, other men and the environment. Therefore, there is a set of moral rules and guidelines about man's conduct towards environment which is called "environmental ethics". Having defined the environment, the most famous theories on environmental ethics, and the impact of a worldview on their adoption, the present paper tries to discuss briefly the most important fundamentals of environmental ethics of Islam with the emphasis on Professor Misbāh Yazdi's views, and explain some moral virtues, rules, and instances in this regard.

The present paper aims at comparing the contents of two important ethical books, "Tahzib al-Akhlaq wa Taṭhir al-Arāq" by Abu Ali Miskawayh, and " Jami al- Saādāt" by Mullā Mohammad Mahdi Narāqi, on some basic issues(concepts) in ethics including the interpretation of happiness and welfare. The explanation of the meaning of happiness is totally dependent on the kind of outlook on man and the world. As ethicists have always emphasized and recommended the principle of self-examination and selfcontrol as the constituent elements of the process of education, the important thing in this respect is that self-examination and self-regulation should be systematic and negligence should be avoided. In evaluating the important and proposed methods this regard, it can be said that Greek theosophers, and following them, Abu 'Ali Miskawayh have used external tools such as friends and foes to examine the self, but most Muslim ethicists including Muhaqqiq Narāqi believe that the direct reference to self is the most useful and influential method to examine the self and there is no need for the help of friends, foes or others. As for the issue of the prevention and treatment of moral illnesses which have occupied large parts of these two valuable books, the general methods to prevent the mental illnesses have been discussed and the practical aspect of prevention – that is, attempting to do moral acts, practicing, and conditioning the self to do those actions which are appropriate to moral virtues or doing those actions which are contrary to a moral vice - has been recommended while scientific methods to eliminate the moral illnesses are provided.