نشریه اطلاعات جغرافیایی (سپهر)
پیاپی 47 (پاییز 1382)

Remote sensing is important as a new technology for collection of geographic data for GIS on the one hand and as user's reference spatial data for scientific analysis on the other. In this paper, emphasis is placed on the importance of linking remote sensing raster data to GIS vector data to create IGIS. The application of IGIS is of great value in a variety of applications, such as information classification and environmental modeling. It is evident that remote sensing and IGIS complement each other, and both progressed independently and separately, especially in the early days. With linking the technology, concepts and theories of both in IGIS, more advanced and up-to-date information systems can be created for use in real applications. Almost all projects that currently use satellite data or deal with environmental data benefit from development of IGIS.

Urban wars popular uprisings, resistance movements as well as terrorists grow in urban environment, and their potentials and talent are strengthened in streets and alleys, and superior technology fails to counteract them because the forces who seek to combat such irregular and guerrilla wars in cities find that timely access to accurate information is difficult and that conventional military tactics are ineffective in chasing games in the heart of cities. Revolutionary uprisings People's wars, as described by Mao, Che Guevara and General Giap, are mass rebellions that start in rural areas and ultimately find their way into the city. Urban rebellions that have a different style start in cities where most people live, and if successful, they will come to a faster conclusion.

Remote sensing is the art and science of acquiring information about an object, region, or phenomenon by analyzing the data obtained by a tool that is not in physical contact with the object, region, or phenomenon under investigation. As you read these words, you are using remote sensing. Your eyes act as sensors that respond to the light reflected from this page.

The planning of new cities in the world over the last century has been used in response to changing social and economic conditions and national planning priorities, and each country, in the context of its development, has planned and practiced the construction of new cities, and has used it as a means of addressing urban and regional problems, or as a motivation for economic revitalization of regions that have suffered from economic recession as well as for development of less developed areas. New cities in Iran have been entered the urban planning system and constructed under various headings over the last three to four decades. Increasing urban population and the need to create new urban centers that can accommodate the extra population is one of the effective factors in construction of such cities. These cities are built to prevent the spread of large cities and metropolitan areas which are faced with numerous problems such as rising rents, high prices of land and housing costs. The experience of building new Iranian cities and their positive and negative points is of special importance. In this paper, we tried to study the status of new cities and their positive and negative points as one of the experiences of urbanization, and it is hoped that its results could be effective.

The purpose of this research was to introduce the theoretical foundations of fertilizing the clouds. First, the importance of the fertility issue is presented and then the origin of Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN), natural Ice Nuclei (IN), types of fertility, mechanisms of growth of cloud droplets and the factor of fertility have been discussed. The results of the study show that human beings can help the nature in terms of the number and type of precipitation formation nuclei through the process of cloud fertilizing. According to the rules of cloud physics, the fertilization of clouds is possible. Using cloud artificial insemination technology, it is possible to produce ultrafine silver iodide particles or other materials that can play the same role as natural ice crystals (freezing cores) and thus accelerate the mechanism of the Bergeron process and consequently increase precipitation.

The city of Mashhad has long been affected by natural conditions of the region (the existence of suitable farming soil, various mines, etc.) and also by the general state of political economy of the country. "In the third century A.H”, according to Ya’ghubi, “Noghan (the first nucleus of the city of Mashhad) was a great city renowned for the production of stone dishes”. He refers to Noghan as “the place of turquoise and green marble sale, which was extracted from the surrounding mountains" (Le Strange, 1997: 415). In addition, Moghaddasi in the late third century mentions the markets of the city of Tabran (the current Tus city which is a suburb of Mashhad today), that contained great deal of commodities. (Ibid.) Economic growth in the city of Mashhad begins mainly in the Safavid period. The first Shah of this dynasty, Ismail I, established the Shiite religion as the official religion of the country, and in this situation, attention was paid to the religious cities of the country, especially Mashhad, and the importance of this city continued at the time of his successors (The Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1991, 714). By reformations of Shah Abbas I Safavid and his efforts to improve and restore roads and build and repair interurban caravansaries and security stations, the trade in the age of Safavids experienced prosperity, and Mashhad, which was highly considered by the Shiite sultans of Safavid religion, was not an exception to this rule (Tahernya, 1997: 175). British businessman George Thompson wrote in 1153 A.H. (at the time of the rule of Nadir Shah Afshar) about the city's economy: “Mashhad is a prosperous city, where commerce plays a significant role. Every day, caravans from Balkh, Badakhshan, Kandahar, India and every corner of Iran's soil enter Mashhad. The large and well-developed markets of this city are brimming with valuable commodities and a large group of merchants from various nations are gathered here” (Afshar Sistani, 1999: 338). He has mentioned the number of caravansaries in this city as almost ninety.

Using current GPS receivers, is not possible to navigate (explore) inside a building. Seoul National University (SNU) has developed a closed-space navigation system based on pseudo-satellites in which the results of the RMS errors are limited to 1-2 mm in determining the static position and to 5-15 mm in the dynamic position determination.

Each sensor has a particular mission and application, and it is often desirable for us to have spectral and spatial resolution in an image at the same time, since the amount of information in a picture is limited by the spatial and spectral resolution of the imaging system, and most of common imaging systems offer one of these two features, such as the tm, spot, etc. imaging systems. Of course, along with these systems, there are other systems that enjoy both good spatial resolution and considerable spectrum capabilities, like IKonos Kfa, Kvr, etc.) To overcome the problem of systems of the first type, we use different image processing methods with which we will have both of the features (spatial and spectral resolution) in the image, an operation which is called "Image Fusion." In general, Image Fusion is more convenient and economical than the design and construction of an advanced sensor that has both spatial and spectral resolution. The multi-spectral images provide the necessary information for interpretation of mapping land cover, but their spatial resolution is not enough. Therefore, in order to increase spatial resolution, using various methods of Image Fusion, multi-spectral images are combined with high resolution images so that we can find out more information about our surroundings and capture more details. These techniques are also known as sharpening techniques. Based on the definition of Image Fusion, EARSEL it is a tool for data that come from various sources with the aim of obtaining high-quality information. Here it is important to note that images with different resolutions may not be simultaneously captured and changes in atmospheric light properties cause damage to composite images, and this damage is seen in Landscape, which contains smaller components (details).

In this paper, the author's aim is to discuss the concept of rural spatial organization by determining the prevailing themes in geographic research, and especially emphasizing rural aspects. This research has been conducted based on this aim, and based on the belief that conscious management of the organization of services and resources in settlement system will not only facilitate proper distribution and allocation of resources to the surrounding areas, but will also improve the physical coherence and optimal spatial organization of the settlement system.

The management of border rivers control is important for countries adjacent to them due to changes in river channels and bed (especially in the lower reaches of the river). In many cases, the meandering of rivers leads to significant changes in boundary lines, leading to geopolitical outcomes and political conflicts. In countries facing water shortage crisis, the role of border-rivers and their control is vital. The vast majority of political conflicts between the Occupied Palestinian Territories and its neighbors over the Jordan River, or the case between India and Pakistan over the water of the Sind River are examples of such conflicts.

Parks and green spaces are very valuable because of their dual role, namely recreational importance as well as impact on preservation and balance of urban environment, mitigation of pollution and cleansing air, and reduction of spiritual and physical exhaustion. The role of these spaces is not limited to recreational issues, therefore they need to be considered by planners independently. Attention to criteria such as characteristics of flowers and trees, their arrangement, their applications in different places and conditions on the one hand, and taking into account of human issues such as the tendencies and feelings of human beings, their behavioral patterns, the culture of parks (dealing with and using them), the proper equipment and facilities, habits, customs and countless issues of the same kinds on the other, necessitate an accurate and comprehensive design. In this paper, we have tried to study the above materials in a detailed way so that they can meet the different needs of readers and people of different ages and social groups.

Undoubtedly, geography is one of the most applied sciences in today's world, yet it is still isolated and somewhat unknown in our country. The mentality and knowledge of the majority of people toward this science is limited to the definitions of purely descriptive nature related to the 17th Century and before. Many people do not even understand the most obvious and most basic definition of geography, while geography is associated with lives of people, is as old as human being, and in a sense is the knowledge of living. The term geography is, in the minds of many people in our country, mistakenly synonymous with the names of mountains, rivers, capitals, races, etc., and has been associated with a higher level of knowledge of climatic status. This is such that, once encountered with any person educated in the field, they seem to have encountered a massive database or encyclopedia that has a high capacity for storing names of natural and human habitations. Therefore, answering such questions is the scientific task and outcome of any graduate or student studying in the field. According to the author, in the emergence and development of such a wrong attitude toward geography, not only the experts and specialists of this field are guilty of not providing public awareness, but also the media which, despite diverse programs including some shows of geographic nature concerning one of the branches of this discipline, nevertheless avoids speaking of such mistakes consciously or unknowingly. In this paper, it is attempted to briefly describe the historical developments in the definition and content of geography from beginning to the present day, and to clarify the importance and current status of applied geography in natural and human sciences by mentioning the various branches of the aforementioned fields in the European and American countries as well as in our country, Iran.

Climate change is a general term that describes climatic discontinuity and rupture. In order to study temperature changes in Hamadan, temperature fluctuations in a statistical period of fifty years (1952-2002) have been investigated. According to a survey conducted in 1973, a sudden drop in the minimum, and a sudden rise in the maximum, temperature were observed. According to the Mann Kendall test, there are significant changes in the three parameters of minimum, maximum and average temperature, including the decreasing trend observed in 1962, and this negative trend continued until 1992, and this year thereafter, an increasing trend of temperature can be observed. It should be noted that the maximum spring temperature is an exception, since in the year 1992 it is the beginning of cooling season. On the minimum temperature chart, the falling trend starts from 1957 and continues until 1974. The result is that the year 1992 is the beginning of a period of increasing temperature and climate change in Hamedan, and the temperature rise is 0.55 degrees averagely, 0.79 ° C at minimum temperature and 0.3 ° C at maximum temperature.