فصلنامه پژوهشهای روستایی
سال دوم شماره 3 (پیاپی 7، پاییز 1390)

Tourism is one of the most important is sues of contemporary evolutions that with changes in land aspect, political situation, economic and cultural dimension creates different human life styles. Besides this is the most important factor in order to cultural exchange and familiarity with other nations from several dimensions (such as culture, nature, etc. …). Despite 20th century has finished, developing of some regions has faced with manifold problems and challenges. Because that previous strategies for developing of regions were not successful and could not solve many problems such as poverty, employment, hygiene, food security and environment sustainability. These guidelines also were not succeed in distribution of revenue that derived from growth and development and caused to manifold problems for different regions, especially the rural areas. One of the guidelines that recently has been considered in almost all of the countries in the world is developing the tourism industry in less developed regions and capable for developing tourism industry. Rural tourism is a kind of tourism industry that nowadays have prominent situation in tourism researches. The purpose of this research was investigation of the viewpoint(s) of related specialists, informed villagers and the community of tourists for codifying an applicable model for obstacles and problems of tourism industry in Charmahal -&- Bakhtiari (CH & B) province.

IntroductionA natural hazard is a threat of a naturally occurring event which has negative effects on human lives. This negative effect is called a natural disaster. Natural Hazards (and the resulting disasters) are the out comes of naturally occurring processes that have operated throughout the history of Earth. The assessment of vulnerability at the community level is currently strongly evolving. Also participatory methods are seen as the way forward to act successfully at the local/community level. In order to carry out effective measures for risk reduction, information has to be available about the certain hazards that threaten a certain area, the elements at risk (population, buildings, infrastructure, economic activities) that are exposed to these hazards, the vulnerability of these elements at risk and an estimation on the expected losses. The concept of vulnerability has not been finally defined yet and the indicators and agreements on how to measure the "measurelss"es are still on its way. Natural hazards have always been among the most important problems in rural community and planning opposition and prevention from these disasters and their obnoxious effects had been among the long term goals of these communities. Risk Assessment involves not only the assessment of hazards from a scientific point of view, but also the socio-economic impacts of a hazardous event. Risk is a statement of probability that an event will cause x amount of damage, or a statement of the economic impact in monetary terms that an event will cause. Risk assessment involves: 1- hazard assessment, 2- location of buildings and other infrastructure in the areas subject to hazards, 3- potential exposure to the physical effects of a hazardous situation, 4- the vulnerability of the community when subjected to the physical effects of the event. Therefore Risk assessment helps the decision -makers and scientists to compare and evaluate potential hazards, set priorities on what kinds of mitigation are possible, and set priorities on where to focus resources and further study.MethodologyTo improve the capacity of communities and local governments to measure key elements of their current disaster risk, a community based indicator system was developed. Using indicators on community level in this context is a rather new and innovative approach. The established conceptual framework systemizes the key elements of disaster risk into the factors of Hazard, Exposure, Vulnerability and Capacity & Measures. The framework helps to understand the driving forces (factors) at work and served to identify appropriate indicators. Hence, using the scientific and new methodology is so important in these areas. In this way, application the decision making methods and models is an important tool for accessing to optimum organizing and planning that play main role in multiple goals such as measurement, weighting, decision making, selection, etc. in such action extent. These techniques categorized in two main groups: multi criteria, and multi objective decision making models. The multi criteria decision making model as for their more efficiency, cleave to Non- Compensatory Model and Compensatory Model. Thus, current study, first measured the priority of weighting method from experts attitude and then with regard to set of criteria for disaster in rural of Sojasrud village, with 47 rural in council level, by employing one model from each subgroup of Non- Compensatory Model and Compensatory Model, compared the results accuracy in measurement of 12 hazards types. Results & DiscussionRanking methods, similarity measures and uncertainty measures are very important concepts for interval Comparative assessment. In this report, several ranking methods, similarity measures and uncertainty measures for Comparative assessment natural hazard in rural area were evaluated based on real survey data. the SAW ranking method was the best one, according to the results.ConclusionIn the first step, it was shown that between many waiting method, AHP weighting technique from expert’s attitude has been the best technique for weighting. In second step, Results introduced that from expert attitude, the best method for weighting was AHP method and SAW method had a great correlation with other methods (TOPSIS, ELECTRE, LEXICOGRAPH). Therefore the SAW method acted as an ideal option in natural hazards measurement in rural area. The results of this research will help rural Decision making, risk management, Natural Disasters management and planning for rural area for better understanding how to use methods effectively in rural planning and management processing.

IntroductionYouth, as constructors of the future community, play an important role in rural economy and agriculture of developing countries. Rural youth accounts for around 55% of the world youth population. It was estimated that by the year 2050, 700 million youth are in rural areas. They develop the skills, knowledge and attitudes that enable them to take an active role in society. But as is appropriate, programmers of rural and agricultural development do not pay attention to them. For this reason, the agricultural or rural) development projects at the appropriate level, have not been succeeded. This vast majority, is accounted as the potential capital of the villages development from the traditional status to active and economic sector. In youth age development in field of physical, cognitive and personality is remarkable. Thus, youth’s participation is important and necessary in social life. Notably, the participation of rural people, especially the young ones in planning agricultural development in our country haven’t much record. Family and social construction as an example pyramid of power, vertical social relations, low age of the youth village, and less confidence to this group prevents their effective participation in agricultural development. Without economic growth and food security, no development effort could be sustainable, and agricultural development is a critical catalyst for economic growth and poverty reduction. Experiences of different countries reflect the fact that broad participation of different age groups, especially youth, has acted an effective role in the development of rural agricultural community. So considering the age structure of population in our country and the importance of participation in agricultural development, necessity to recognize and examine the characteristics of these groups to participate in the development is specified.MethodologyThe purpose of this study was investigated of effective factors regarding Kermanshah rural youth participation in agricultural development. The research method of the current study in terms of nature, rate and the degree of control and method of data - collection was quantitative, field research and descriptive-correlation, survey research. The target population in the study was the rural youth of Kermanshah Township. Using multi-stage cluster sampling technique, 175 rural youth were selected as a statistical sample. The content and face validity of the instrument were established by a panel of experts in the field of agricultural extension. Instruments reliability was estimated by calculating Cronbach's alpha coefficient. Collected data were analyzed using the SPSS software. Reliabilities of the instruments were 0.85. For data analysis, descriptive statistics (including frequency, percentage, cumulative percentage, means and standard deviation) and inferential statistics (including coefficient of correlation, T test and linear regression) were used.ResultsThe findings of this study showed that; approximately of the respondent that amount of participation was average. The relationship between the variables of age, member of employed people in agricultural section, educational level, motivational factors, size of farm land, attitude regarding to employment in agricultural activities and using of communicational-informational resources were significantly correlative and positively linked with their participation about agricultural development. The results of different analysis revealed that there was significant discrepancy between participation in relation with gender and contribute in extension education. The result of stepwise multivariate regression analysis revealed that: The variable of attitude regarding employment in agricultural activity, factors influencing Youth involvement in the agriculture, level of communication channels, size of farm land and age predict a variation of 56.7% of participation.ConclusionBased on the main results of the survey, acquiring the science increases awareness and power of recognition. On the other hand, literacy is an appropriate tool to use other facilities that are effective in development of participative activities. Age in this study was investigated whether it can be effective factor in contributing or not; and after data analyzing, the relationship was significant. Establishing this relationship was because of their division into two groups: 15-19 and 19-24 years that in the second part because of their personal characteristics, employment and education achieved to relative stability, and had a broader range of experience than the first group and would have more participation in agricultural development. According to the obtained information, the economic situation was effective in creating participation. So the economic recourses were important factors in youth participation. Necessity to assess the attitudes of youth about employment and participation is in this respect that help the programmers to be informed of their way of thinking and if necessary plan suitable programs for youth’ reformation and changing their attitudes. Youth communication with people, channels, and different communities develop their breadth of vision in direction of improvement of the society in which they live in. And also participation displays as a mechanism that can be fruitful in achievement of this important aspect. Psychological characteristics such as motive engine, causing the youth take steps to develop themselves and their society that they live in. Motivation is considered as a youth’s force giving and guiding in agricultural development. Survey findings show that the gender has a significant difference with the participation of young people. This means that men participate more than women in various activities of agriculture. Perhaps the reason is gender discrimination that still exists in rural communities. Although women now compare to the past have more strength but in rural communities with traditional context many activities are not deposited to them. Between two groups who have participated in the extension classes and those who have no desire to attend in courses, there are significant differences. In fact participation in extension training courses has a positive effect on people attitude and as a result also has revealed its impact on the domain of psychomotor.

IntroductionA large number of development projects in developing countries focus on rural areas. Emerging global evidences suggest that while the sustainability is a crucial and independent dimension of development, it has most often been neglected when planning these projects in many developing countries, including Iran. These have been faced with numerous challenges such as a growing sense of rural households’ dissatisfaction, negative attitudes, and conflicts with the project, as well as unsustainability, and in many instances complete failure. In recent years, rural development projects in Iran and many developing countries have been criticized for their detrimental effects on various aspects, and unsustainability at large. Then, the impacts of these projects and their long-term future have emerged as major rural policy issues in recent year. In this regard, in line with the triple bottom line approach from sustainable development, the IRCs are of particular importance in considering the sustainability of rural development. The IRCs establish a range of rural development projects to alleviate poverty, unemployment, and an insufficient food supply. Although these projects were assumed to be beneficial for rural people, they often had unintended negative impacts on the environment and local communities. Therefore, the aims of this paper were twofold. First, to find out the performance of IRCs towards sustainable rural development; second, to determine factors that are most likely the key determinants of performances of the IRCs in Semirom county, Esfahan province, Iran. Methodology An evaluation research methodology adopted in this study consists of survey technique conducted with a sample of members of IRCs in the county. The data were acquired by questionnaires used in face-to-face interviews. A panel of experts confirmed the face validity of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was improved based on the pilot study results. The reliability of questionnaire was tested by using a sample of 15 members of IRCs in villages outside the study area. All statistical analysis were performed using SPSS statistical package (version 17.5 for widows), which consisted of reliability measures, t-test, and hierarchical regression. A significance level of 0.05 was used to establish statistical significance. The Semirom (31º25'N, 51º43'E) is a county located in the Esfahan province of Iran. The county is comprised of two districts, six rural districts (include many villages), and 122 villages. Seventy From 122 villages have IRCs. Therefore, the statistical population of this study consisted of 70 villages with 210 members of IRCs in Semirom county. Out of this, 47 villages with 141 members of IRCs were selected using Pattern sampling size table with the aid of multistage stratified random sampling. Finally, data were collected from125 members of IRCs in 47 villages. Using a model to focus on the performance of IRCs will help policy makers and experts to make the best use of the facilitating factors that might improve these local organizations. Therefore, the performance of the IRCs was empirically tested using a "total performance index" (TPI) to measure the performance of IRCs: Where TPI is the total performance index of IRCs. PERFORM1. .. PERFORM6 is the performance of IRCs in socio-culture, economic, environmental, and constructional and communication with other organizations, and physical Guide Plan. ResultsFindings revealed the moderate performance of the IRCs. The mean total performance was 2.86 on a scale of 1 to 5 (standard deviation=0.45). Furthermore, the six components of the performance (socio-cultural, economic, environmental, constructional and communicational ones with other organizations, and physical Guide Plan) were placed in a medium position, either. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to validate the theoretical model. In each stage of analysis, a set of predictor from the “determinants of IRCs performance” model entered into the regression equation. It was hypothesized that a variety of factors, including social capital, village and its environment, government's support, members’ satisfaction, members’ knowledge, public participation contribute to formation of IRCs performance. The dependent variable of the analysis was performance of IRCs. The results of hierarchical regressions indicated that the models were able to explain a small percent of variability in performance of IRCs. Findings indicated that among the variables postulated in the model to explain performance of IRCs, “members’ social capital”, “government's support”, and “public participation” had a significant influence on performance of IRCS regarding sustainable development. ConclusionBased on the results of this study, people in rural areas have expressed their desire to cooperate with the councils to solve the village's problems. Therefore, rural people should play the main role in the process of project planning and development. Much has been written about the value of local participation for all stakeholders, particularly in bringing local values and social objectives to the decision-making process and promoting sustainability. Furthermore, government support plays the main role in improving IRCs’ performance. Then the government's support should increase to improve IRCs performances and activities.

IntroductionExtended Tourism is one of the most important alternatives for developing societies. In addition to the economic benefits of tourism, the local communities achieve sustainable development through social and cultural benefit. Experiences of different regions in tourism development indicate that local communities should be the centres of planning and activities related to tourism. Today, rural areas are none developed and developing countries encounter several economic problems including poverty and unemployment. All development activities in these areas should lead to solve or reduce the mentioned problems. In recent years, there have been several tourism programs with entrepreneurial approaches, which have been designed and implemented. Tourism and entrepreneurship are placed among youth issues in scientific world. Undoubtedly, the appropriate integration of tourism and entrepreneurship can meet the needs of villagers in addition to ensure safety and optimal excursion for tourists. For applying entrepreneurial activity in a community, essential backgrounds and infrastructures should to be provided. Nowadays, this concept is called "entrepreneurial climate”. Entrepreneurial environment that includes all elements for an entrepreneurial business in a community is needed too.MethodologyOraman county in Sarvabad Township in Kurdistan province in west of Iran has been selected as a unit of this study. The mentioned region is an ancient one with historical attractions, as well as cultural, social and natural ones, that have the capacity of attraction the tourists, annually. The Ceremony known as "Pir-Shalyar" is one of the tourist attractions in the region that held each year (in May) and thousands of domestic and foreign tourists participate in cultural and social events like the mentioned one. Despite the enormous potential and a positive view of the local community, the tourism industry lacks the ability to meet the economic needs of local people. The objective of this study is to assess the entrepreneurial climate in the field of rural tourism. The method of this study has been surveying one. In order to collect data, a researcher- made questionnaire was designed which its validity was confirmed by the expert and its reliability were confirmed by Pilot study in Ilam province. Total population of this case – study, have been the individuals who experienced participating in programs and activities related to tourism in rural areas. Among198 persons, 134 men were selected randomly by means of Cochrane formula. ResultsResults showed that the Tourism and entrepreneurial activities are not organized and carried out mostly traditionally and small and medium business enterprises with a focus on the family's main economic activities in the region. Although professional training related to tourism and entrepreneurial activity has not been provided for local residents but, greatest level of participation in regional tourism related to people who have university educations. This is one of the most important characteristics of the communities that are prone to develop entrepreneurship. From the patients point of view, the most important features of the region's tourism entrepreneurial activities are factors such as: Demand for travel to the region, demand of tourists for local products, interested villages are in establishing businesses related to tourism, the expansion of local production networks between business owners and Adequate security in the region for tourism and entrepreneurial activities. The findings revealed that the Women and men who participate in the study evaluate “entrepreneurship climate” in the region in level of average, but men than women, have more positive assessment of the situation, of entrepreneurial climate. It seems that social and cultural restrictions of women in economic activities, lead to the mentioned result. The findings also indicated many differences among the view points of various people group to tourism entrepreneurship climate in the area of study. Those who earn more income from tourism activities have a greater satisfaction of the entrepreneurial climate in their region. ConclusionThe findings suggested that the priority elements of entrepreneurial space were different, and hence the local people believe that the factors such as interest to establish tourism enterprises and expansion of local production networks between business owners are the important factors in comparison with other factors related to entrepreneurial climate. Government support programs with private sector participation can increase the entrepreneurial approach in tourism activities.

IntroductionThe agricultural sector has always been the focal point of attentions in rural development. If we are convinced that agriculture plays a pivotal role in rural development, human resources are therefore the key elements to reach the goal of development. Among the valuable resources in agricultural discipline, are the graduated students of factures of agriculture across the country. While these graduates were in constant search for employment, the Ministry of Agricultural Jihad (MAJ) proposed a semi-privatized extension approach using young agricultural graduates. They were supposed to be stationed in Rural Service Centers (RSC) and work under the supervision of government based extension agents as agricultural engineering and consulting firms (AECF). They were given extended pre-service training in addition to what they have already earned in college. Currently, there are 112 firms working as private extension agents with 1129 young engineers across Kermanshah Province. Moreover, in Islam-Abad–e-Gharb Township, there are approximately 10 AECFs with nearly 100 young engineers providing farmers with agricultural advice. Since their establishment in rural areas, their performance has been studied by different researchers. However, what is missing in the literature is what is expected of AECFs as perceived by farmers. MethodologyTherefore, the purpose of this descriptive study was to assess farmers’ expectation from AECFs. Wheat farmers were selected as the population of the study. Using stratified random sampling, 290 wheat farmers participated in the study. A researcher- made questionnaire was designed based on literature review and informal meeting with wheat farmers. The validity of research instrument was determined using judgments from panel of experts from Department of Agricultural Extension and Education and subject matter specialist from Agricultural Jihad Organization in Kermanshah province. Besides, the AECF members stationed in townships other than Islam-Abad-e-Gharb provided feedback to the questionnaire. In order to test the reliability of research instrument, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used. A reliability of 0.84 was achieved indicating that the research instrument is reliable. Statistical Package for Social Sciences software was used to analyze data. Results revealed that farmers’ expectations can be organized into five categories: Behavioral, Technical, Educational, The AECF principles, and Access to Resources. The behaviors expectation of farmers from AECF members included manners and the way they treated farmers. Farmers expected to be treated with outmost sincerity. The technical expectations included issues such as technical proficiency among young engineers. In other words, the farmers expected competent professional and expertise advice from AECF members. The educational expectation of farmers included sound and up-to-date information from consulting firms’ members. In regards to AECF principles, farmers’ perceptions towards private extension services were important. In other words, the question here was how farmers perceived AECFs in compare to government based extension services. Finally, farmers expected AECFs to provide them with resources when needed. Results The results of the study showed that all categories of expectations were met by AECF members. This means that farmers were quite happy with performance of private extension agents working under agricultural engineering and consulting firms. The results of this study have implications for Agricultural Jihad Organization. The current government-based extension approach may consider AECF as a potential extension approach in the country; while it has been criticized for being less effective and not meeting diverse needs of farmers. The development of AECFs may help Agricultural Jihad Organization in making a smooth and gradual transition towards privatized extension system in Iran. The results of this study also include educational implication for Iranian agricultural higher education. Since the number of potential students in agricultural major is on a decrease compare to other disciplines, the result of this study indicates that there is a potential for agricultural majors to be involved in entrepreneurial activities. ConclusionThe young engineers in this study are somehow involved in entrepreneurial behavior, since they are providing a new type of services to all farmers, either innovative or marginalized ones. This in turn may remedy the unemployment rate among agricultural graduates. Moreover, the current take-a-job behavior of agricultural graduates may change into make-a-job behavior. This would consequently develop more entrepreneurial mentality among agricultural graduates across the country.

IntroductionDespite the suitability of climatic conditions in this region, comparing the other ones, the rural population in Kurdistan hardly reaches to 350 persons. It seems that development of the villages in this province is directly related to natural constraints. Although many factors cause instability of the natural environment, this study discusses only about the factors that contribute to wide-spread instability in the area of environmental studies. Among the major objectives of the modern geographical approach understands the impacting rules of space based on the cause and effect principles. In perceptional environment, human being as the main element of the geographical space grants validity to all of the natural and cultural phenomena. Therefore, the geography of environmental perception has been established in order to explain the spatial relationships among phenomena. In a geographical structure, all phenomena are carefully interacting. The rate of interaction is not the same for all regions. Therefore, sometimes a geographic factor (or a collection of factors) implies more impacts in comparison to the other ones; and this leads to the environmental instability. MethodologyAfter the event method was applied in the present study, the topographical maps, GIS and questionnaire were used. Findings showed that the average height of the villages was 1650 m. from the sea level and freezing duration was more than 4 months which caused some problems regarding the economic activities, energy and communications. ResultsThe present research is in line with the environmental perception and reveals how a physical environment affects the behavior and functions of men in creating an instable environment. Kurdistan province locates on the high Zagros zone at west of Iran. More than 82% of the area is mountainous. This feature makes Kurdistan province distinguished among all of the other Iranian provinces. Although it has created some barriers for human settlements too. Findings show that the urban population of Sanandaj has been three folded during the last three decades. It seems that rural migration in Kurdistan province is mainly because of it's natural limit ations. The most impacting natural factors on the average decline rate of rural population includes: semi dry climate, steep slopes, and heights from the sea level and ragged surface which all have caused limitations for delivering necessary services to the high rural areas. The main reasons for migration in rural areas outlined in the following cases:1 - Arable land is limited, and therefore dry land farming is possible in less steep slopes; 2- Expansion of public facilities and services in the vertical and horizontal surfaces requires a large expenditure.3 – The costs communication network development and installation are often much higher in areas of steep, comparing flat areas.Thus, rural residents are forced to leave their villages in hope of finding better lives in fringe areas of larger cities. Also, 49% are quite uneven, 30% are rather uneven and just 21% of the area are even. In case of population density, 12.8% of population resides at slopes less than 5 percent, 45.4% at slopes between 5 and 10 per cent, 17.1% at slopes between 10 and 15 percent, 12.5% at slopes between 15 and 20 percent and 11.8% at slopes more than 20 percent. Reviews of population growth rate, which is affected by migration, show that rural population growth rate during 1981-1991 equals to -0.15 %. This figure for the whole country was 0.28 %. During 1991-2001 the trend was -0.44 % for country and -0.92 % for Kurdistan province. It means that the population decline in Kurdistan has been as twice of the country. Findings also show that there is no coordination between rural residential system in Kurdistan and requirements of modern changes and developments. Analysis of population studies with sustainable and unsustainable rural settlements of the province directly related to the natural foundations such as climate, elevation, slope, land, etc. ConclusionThe phenomenon of rural migration in Kurdistan has it's origins in the socio-economic problems as well as the natural ones. Natural factors can also be effective in accelerating or planning restrictions and they can change the texture of a geographical environment. But, physical factors are capable to accelerate or to impede the developmental planning or changing a spatial; texture of a geographical environment. However, not only decreasing the rates of rural migrations is possible, but also the economic and other activities of the areas can be renewed, if scientific and logic plans be applied for educating and participating of peoples. Also, some other plans such as TOBA plan, animal husbandry, bees’ production, and tracing plantation can help the process of rural development. In addition, controlling the seasonal and permanent waters which are used for plants or industrial fishing can be considered as attempts for preparation of Kurdistan development, apart from its beautiful natural and cultural landscapes. Rural tourism can be expanded to make a better rural environment.