فصلنامه بین المللی ژئوپلیتیک
سال نهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 30، تابستان 1392)

Geopolitics of sport is one of the geopolitical modern discourses that addresses and analysis the political consequences of sport matches. Today, sport competitions overshadow relations of states and social- political groups and are knotted with concepts such as national power, competition, convergence, conflict, nationalism, national unity and solidarity and the like, and affect states’ and nations’ attitudes and views towards each other. The tendency of public thoughts to obtain news and information concerning to sport events in the other hand and immense reflection of sport events in mass media of communication from the other hand have caused sport and politics to get increasingly closer to each other. Accepting the idea that the world of sport is quite different from politics and its independence from political games seems a simplistic matter. While some people try to emphasize on this idea that sport and politics must be separate from each other, because sport is one of human spiritual longings and politicians and policymakers activities are out of their spiritual longings. In reality, although one of the International Olympic Committee goals, under giving the concession of Olympic Games, is opposing with misusing of sportsmen and sport, but throughout the history of modern Olympic it cannot be find games which are not affected by politics in different means. Even, the primary Olympic champions were rooted in policies of its own time, which were aimed to draw each other, specially the city- states of the ancient Greece, to competition. Modern Olympics are scenes to state some issues like wars, boycotts, strikes and terrorist attacks that all of these matters are in the domain of politics. In addition, sport because of its content and cultural importance, is strongly knotted with the international political-economic systems. All of host countries (politicians) use Olympics to progress their countries and to generate national pride and national unity by holding national and identical festivals. It has been said many ethical, philosophical and literary comments about functions of sport. However, each comment underlines one of its aspects and fails to consider other political- social functions of sport. For example, for an enthusiastic evolutionary like Cheguevara, “Football is no just a simple game; it is a weapon of the revolution”. Others, like Merlie Kessler chides football and some of them say, “Football players, like prostitutes, are in the business of ruining their bodies for the pleasure of strangers”. MethodologyThis article tries to analyze the geopolitical functions of sport competitions using analytical, descriptive and survey methods. At first, social and political functions of sport (28 functions) were determined by referring to library sources, and then a questionnaire was designed in order to compare the importance and affection of the political- social functions of sport competitions. After that, opinions of 30 experts of political sciences, international relations, political geography, sport sciences, and social sciences were collected and studied. Finally, the views were assessed and analyzed using the T-Student and the Friedman tests. These tests raise the question of “Do all factors have the same affection from point of view of experts or not?”. Cranach’s alpha coefficient was used to determine the reliability and validity of the questions. The number obtained is = α99%. With regards to this fact that the standard level in this test is 75%, the obtained alpha (99%) shows that the questionnaire has collected the needed information more than the standard.Results and discussionThe results of the research indicate that the most important political-social functions of the discourse of sport are: strengthening nationalism, strengthening the sense of territoriality, developing globalization, strengthening other national identities, athletic competitions as forums to geopolitical gestures, geopolitical seclusion, raising the geopolitical dignity, promoting the terrorist activities, strengthening convergence and weakening divergence, sport as a socializing factor, sport as a unifying factor, sport as a forum to transform the society, sport as a factor that promotes social security and morality, sport as an alternative to war, sport as a propagandistic tool of politicians, neo-liberalism and reification of sportsmen, sport as a factor that creates joy and pride, pattern making from sporting, sexual and ethnic reconstruction, promoting human rights, promoting violence, draining people’s emotional energies, convincing people to accept current status, football as an alternative for religion, deviating people’s attention from their real social position, football as a deconstructing factor in the age of meta-narratives and developing sport tourism in the frame of geopolitical tourism.

IntroductionRepublic of Kazakhstan with continental location and lack of accessibility to the open seas, unique capability of the Islamic Republic of Iran to control energy production regions, energy transmission lines and energy consumption markets provide new opportunities to foreign investment in Iran. Iran by placing in the geographical center of region should be considered as an international center for investment, transfer of goods and in particular energy, but over the years after the collapse of Soviet Union, Central Asia has been the bed to regional competitions and political and economic presence of trans-regional powers and their influence in these republics. Therefore, one of the most important factors limiting the mobility space for comprehensive development of relation with Iran is the presence of these countries. In addition, there are some internal problems and obstacles in these countries and the Islamic Republic of Iran in the gap between initial expectations and they have an important role in the status quo. In this paper the role of two the countries, the United States and Russia is studied as factors affecting the development of Iran’s relations with the Republic of Kazakhstan as an independent variable in order to study and analyze the relations between Iran and Kazakhstan as the dependent variable.MethodologyThis paper tries to evaluate the hypothesis through descriptive approach and is mostly based on analysis. Data gathering procedure is based on various methods like library method. Internet, books and experts papers of Central Eurasia library (University of Tehran) were used in the data-gathering step. After data classifying by means of descriptive-analytical approach data were analyzed.Results and discussionIran for the landlocked Central Asia is a good transportation route, which can bring Kazakhstan’s oil and gas production in the best shape to open seas. Despite the efforts of the US government to ignore this trait and the politics of oil and gas transmission, Iran is considered as the safest, the most economic and short path for energy supplies transferring to the open seas. American foreign policy toward the Caspian region will ignore the important increasing interdependencies between Iran and its northern neighbors. Therefore, one of the most important factors limiting maneuvering space for the Islamic Republic of Iran which prevents comprehensive development with these countries is the U.S. In recent years, Russia also has been able to use energy to play the role of an important political actor. Russia is not willing to accept the limitation on its role in this field and entrance of other rivals in this arena. Therefore, Russia carefully considers the actions of other countries, especially Iran.ConclusionAlthough the end of the Cold War would provide for Iran appropriate geopolitical opportunities to create an independent relationship with its northern neighbors, but arrival of the US in this region following the power vacuum created and took advantage of the geography and geographical elements against our country has limited Iran’s geopolitical opportunities after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Although Iran does not have hostile relations with the Republic of Kazakhstan, but it failed to find an important place in the country’s economic relations in such a way that the energy transmission lines are in more or less control of Russia. In fact, Iran’s relation with the Republic of Kazakhstan is only preventing damage of existing relationships, but this matter cannot take away the shadow of the US hostility and Russia’s concerns.

IntroductionSerious changes in the actors, resources and control methods in the international politics are under way. Over the past years energy resources has been at the forefront of great powers interest and has functioned as determinant factor in their regional and world politics. Due to limited energy resources and problems of safety and affordable access to them, this issue has become one of the most important issues in international security. Energy security is crucial for the European countries that are dependent on importing energy resources.MethodologyThis research uses the descriptive- analytical method. This article focuses on the future situation of the Europe energy and then uses the future study techniques. The analysis of current trends can provide the better understanding of future.Result and discussion Energy is one of the most crucial issues for the Europe and its economy that prosperity and daily life depends on it. The Europe depends on import of energy resource. The European energy demands import from Russia and Middle East. The facts show increasingly demands and vulnerabilities for the European countries that are mainly dependant on the Russian and Middle East countries. The energy security is in the top security priorities of the Europe and European countries and their policies that want to access to security and reliable energy resources. Several energy projects like NABOCU, SOUTH STREAM, AGRI and other projects are under considerations but the problem remains unsolved. The political considerations prevent the European benefit from the Iranian resources opportunities. Increasing demands of the west Asian countries (China and India) and their investment in the Iranian energy fields have crucial role in future of Europe that is very important issue. Conclusion European countries to deal with their vulnerabilities in energy dependence should seek some new alternatives. The political considerations prevent Europe to use their best option. Iran is the most serious, secure and economic option. This reality force Europe to consider their anti Iranian policies. Iran should have different plans to use future realities.

IntroductionPower vacuum was created after the collapse of the Soviet Union in some regions of the world. Azerbaijan in Caucasus and Turkmenistan in central Asia were regions that faced with power vacuum. So, divergence and convergence analysis of these countries related to Iran was converted to a geopolitical matter. But this paper investigates the impact rate of underling factors of Iran’s geopolitical interests in these republics in addition to their divergence and convergence with Iran. Also, in this paper we debate geopolitical interests of Iran in these republics using Matrix Examination Model, and then, analyze the twenty underlying factors to address this question: How much these factors can influence the relations of Iran and these republics? It is assumed that geopolitical interests of Iran in these countries are different. Research findings show that Iran’s geopolitical interests in Azerbaijan are more than Turkmenistan.MethodologyThis research paper attempts to determine the influence rate of elementary factors of the geopolitical interests of Iran in Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan republics. Thus, in the present paper, explaining the elements of Iran’s geopolitical interests in the two mentioned republics via Matrix Examination Model. It will be analyzed twenty elementary factors to answer this research question: How much each of the elementary factors can be influential on Iran’s geopolitical interests in the two countries of Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan?In this way, the quantities of each factor are collected from valid documents. At first, it analyzed, countered and compared each factor and then determined Islamic Republic of Iran’s rate of geopolitical interests at the two mentioned countries through this trine process:1. Determining absolute percent of factor X in the two comparing countries through these formulas: 100 Quantities of factor X in country B 100 Quantities of factor X in country A Quantities of factor X in Iran Quantities of factor X in Iran2. Counting sum of absolute percent quantities of factor X in the two comparing countries regarding Iran3. Determining the rate of Iran’s geopolitical interest toward the two comparing countries through these formulas: 100 Absolute percent of factor X in Country A Sum of absolute percent of factor X in Country A regarding Iran 100 Absolute percent of factor X in Country B Sum of absolute percent of factor X in Country B regarding Iran Statistical PopulationStatistical populations in this article are Iran, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. Because these countries are neighboring countries and are setting in Asia that have different communions in cultural, economical, political, military and security fields. Sampling According to H.S. Boula’s table if statistical population were less than ten, sample size and statistical population will be equal. Then in this article 100% of statistical population (Iran, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan) are sample of research.Results and discussionThis article explained four field of economical, political, social and cultural field in Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan that influence Iran’s geopolitical national interests. In this way, twenty factors were extracted from these fields and the role of each factor in Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan was showed.ConclusionAlthough the Cold War was ended soon after the fragmentation of the Soviet Union, geostrategic and geo-economic competition was intensified, especially in central Asia and Caucasus. Both Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan have a collection of geographical, historical, religious, cultural, and etc. communions with Iran that make both countries to protect their relation with Iran for two decades after their independence. But which of the two mentioned countries has more importance in Iran’s geopolitical interests is the matter of evaluating the role of each of twenty factors in each country and the comparison of their quantities. Finally, research findings indicate that Iran’s geopolitical interests in Azerbaijan are more than geopolitical interests in Turkmenistan.

IntroductionA decade after the terrorist attacks of 9/11 terrorism remains among the most important subjects in the security strategy of the US and the EU. It is true that the event occurred in New York, but it entered world into a new phase and caused the revival of a broad term “The West” which had almost lost its importance in the aftermath of the cold war and collapse of the Soviet Union. Confronting with terrorism became a determinative principle in the American and European foreign policy as the consequence of New York terrorist attacks. However, this question arises whether they will share a homogeneous stand against the new threat of terrorism as they did during the cold war or they will choose different approaches towards this issue. The main question in this article is: “What are the nature and process of attitudes and approaches of the US and the European foreign policy makers towards the problem of terrorism?” MethodologyThis article, based on Analytical Descriptive Method, aims to provide an appropriate and reliable context for the Iranian foreign policy makers in dealing with the West about the problem of terrorism, employing relevantly clear and comprehensive illustrations of different approaches chosen by each of EU and the US regarding the issue. Results and dissuasionFindings of the article reveal a lack of common definition and perception about the new threat i.e. terrorism among the US and Europeans due to the ambiguity of its nature, a fact that created temporary problems in their mutual collaboration and convergence. Yet, based on “Defensive Realist Approach” which denotes that "common threads lead to a closer cooperation", the international relations arena witnessed a gradually increasing level of collaborations and convergence in the attitudes of the US and EU on terrorism.ConclusionIt seems that in the future more and closer cooperation in of the US and Europe Union will be in the context of fighting with terrorism.

IntroductionIn recent years, influence of Geographical and Geopolitical basis (factors) have been ignored in international and nations relations or has not been worthily considered. Relations in geopolitical regions are affected by 13 geographical and geopolitical factors in three facets of interregional, periphery system and world system that include: Geographical location, neighborhood factor, geopolitical cods, marginal ideological states, strategic spaces, strategic region, degree of regional security and stability, regional unions, secure/insecure spaces (crisis spaces), geographical sources of conflict/cooperation, balance/imbalance of Interregional power, geopolitical weight (national power) of states. This study tries to present geographical and geopolitical factors in the geopolitical regions, which affect international relations by using descriptive- analytic method and analysis of theories. Geography has always played an important role in human affairs. It has shaped the identity, character, and history of nation-states; it has helped and hindered their social, political, and economic development, and it has played an important role in their international relations. Geopolitics is the study of the influence of geographical factors on states behavior. In other words, how do location, climate, natural resources, population, and physical terrain determine a state’s foreign policy options and its position in the hierarchy of states? Results and discussionThe most important factors that affect geopolitical relations are divided into two groups:Geographical location, neighborhood factor, geopolitical cods, marginal ideological states, strategic spaces, strategic region, degree of regional security and stability, regional unions, secure/insecure spaces (crisis spaces), geographical sources of conflict/cooperation, balance/imbalance of Interregional power, geopolitical weight (national power) of states. Based on studied theories and identification of geographical and geopolitical factors in the geopolitical regions it can be said that pattern of relations in the geopolitical regions and structure of spatial relationships in geopolitical regions are affected by geographical and geopolitical factors in different facets of interregional, periphery system and world system.

IntroductionGeography as a place and space science studies spatial distribution of phenomena and their relations in the earth surface. One of the important phenomena of human made is cities that their spatial distribution depends to variety factors. In past, environmental factors had more important role in cities locating than others, but now political variables are very important. In national scale, one of the important political factors is political system that is divided into unitary, federal and regional systems.Iran’s political system is completely centralized unitary system that has been started from Reza Shah’s era. In this period, central cities of Iran have developed lager than their border cities. MethodologyThis research tries to discover the effects of unitary political system as independent variable on spatial distribution and deals with development of Iran’s cities especially metropolises as a dependent variable. Therefore, the research questions are: how is spatial distribution of Iran’s cities? What are effective factors in spatial distribution of Iran’s cities? Why there is not any metropolis in boundary regions of Iran? Research method is historical and descriptive method and logic analysis. In addition, Arc GIS is used to address the research questions.Results and discussionA huge part of historical period of Iran coincide with decentralized political system and spatial distribution of power on the basis of semi-federal system of kingdom in ancient Iran and tribal system in median decades. This mechanism caused balanced development of country regions based on ecologic potentials. There was Iran’s urban network without a central metropolis. The cities just related with capital for political problems. In third decade of 20th century, Iran’s Political system changed to centralized unitary system. Reza Shah’s centralism politics caused core-periphery model. This model connected all national, regional and local affairs of country to Tehran. Capital was political, economical, commercial, industrial, cultural, educational center of country and through of Iran attracted a lot of immigrants. Tehran and its suburb have 18.9 percent of population and 25.4 percent of urban population of Iran. The rest of Iran’s territory except border regions has metropolis but it is not comparable with Tehran. Boundary regions and its cities cannot develop like central region although they have suitable environmental potentials. These regions have different ethnic, language and religious minorities. Moreover, under-developed neighboring countries and existence of NATO forces especially US forces in Iran’s neighbors caused militarization of boundary regions. These factors cause absent investment in infrastructural affairs in this region. So, boundary regions are under-developed.ConclusionThe results show that the unitary and centralized political system caused uneven and injustice spatial distribution of Iran’s cities and regions. It is the most important factor creating polarized system and its consequence is core-periphery model in spatial structure of Iran's cities. So, the capital is core and boundary cities are periphery. The core is powerful, attractive and model to others and the periphery is inactive, passive, margin and located in the end of transportation lines. The rest of Iran’s territory (semi-periphery) is located between them. Semi-periphery is passive than core, but is powerful than periphery. The development indexes reduce when we are moving from core to periphery and vice versa.

IntroductionThe Silk Road was the most important communicational-historical highway between ancient civilizations and was a main factor in their interacting. Although Silk is a new name for this route, it is very ancient. In the middle Parthian period (Mehrdad ІІ) trade formally and organizationally had been done through this road. When trade had been started with abroad and had linked east and west areas, this route had high importance role and it was the main economic source of the Parthian and even others. Undoubtedly, governors and businessmen had founded procedures and precise plans to dominate this road. MethodologyIn order to reconstruct the security systems, authors studied historical documents and surveyed relics and archaeological findings of the periphery of old route, from Semnanan to Garmsar city. Theoretical indices of security and the several procedures have provided that were required to trade and transition.Results and discussionThe land of Iran was the best and easiest communicational route between east and west. This route was in the north of Iran, that was limited from Shahrood city to Caspian Gate (Ivanaki), and from north as a narrow natural corridor and passageway to the Alborz mountains and from south to the Kavir desert. Although our research focused on this part of the road, we can reconstruct commerce. Nevertheless, the security systems were a part of them.ConclusionResearch findings show that in order to construct an international road natural conditions and facilities should be provided to supply environmental and financial security.