مجله الهیات تطبیقی
پیاپی 9 (بهار و تابستان 1392)

allameh sayyid muhammad husain tabatabaei and David Hume، in regard to influential philosophical thought''s، are very important، one in the Muslim world and The other in the West world. Allama has mentioned his thoughts on ethics، in his two books، the principles of philosophy and Method of realism and Al-Mizan interpretation (Quranic exegesis). In The principles of philosophy and Method of realism، his main discussions are actions that export from agent and the relationship between agent and action. In the sixth chapter of the book، Allama generally analyzes mental aspects، and in particular، examines the psychophilosophical analysis and epistemology of the moral concepts. In terms of epistemology، ethics is one of the perceptions of mental aspects، and according to Allama، humans naturally can distinct right from wrong and take steps towards goodness and happiness. The second psychophilosophical aspect of ethics is related to good moral qualities and spiritual positive properties. As was stated before، humans، by nature، are equipped with the ability to recognize right and wrong; so it can be concluded in the issue of good moral qualities and spiritual positive properties، that virtues and vices are in the form of spiritual positive properties and that actualized in regard to need of Physical actions، and accordingly، humans are forced to take action. Allama in epistemological discussions and how human can obtain the knowledge has analyzed the agency of human and relationship between the agent and the action with the aim of demonstrating the role of reason and perceptions in all levels of human life as central and substantial. Hume at the beginning of the third book، a treatise on human nature، stated that «Morality is a subject that interests us above all others»; He spoke of the importance of this field of philosophy. You can even ponder and reflect on the previous parts of the book so that the introductions of a scheme of ethics are discussed. Hume''s moral philosophy can be considered as «virtue-based ethics». The main concepts of his ethical theory are such as Behavior، virtues and vices، and not a duty، maxims and obligation. The salient feature of Hume''s moral theory is the emphasis upon moral sense according which we discern vicious and virtuous behavior. Consequently، according to Taylor، «Hume''s ethics can be contrasted with other forms of virtue-based ethics، such as Aristotelian ethics.» In Aristotelian virtue ethics، the focus is on the virtuous agent، and to investigate how people can be involved in the acquisition of virtues and deals with the role of virtue in having a good and calm life; whereas Hume is merely deals with diagnoses and assess the treatment. Most of his work is behavior cognition، and partly psychological and is based on an act-centered attitude. His attitude of moral knowledge based on good and bad behaviors of people is distinguished and evaluated on the context of society and the dialogue and discussion. In other words، evaluation and recognition of the moral norms of virtues- or vices-based is a social practice and the social conditions make it clear. Accordingly، Hume argues that «passions as hate، anger، respect، love، courage، pain and pleasure، all of them bring from the communication with others within the community and not from my natural mood.» As a result، one can say that the Allameh Tabatabai argues that human، by nature، has the ability to distinguish right from wrong، and therefore، there are virtues and vices in the form of spiritual positive properties and that actualized in regard to need of Physical actions، and accordingly، humans are forced to take action. Then، human with using the power of «wisdom»، can distinguish between virtues and vices. However، Hume explicitly does not consider distinguishing between good and evil as the act of reason، but of «moral sense»، and According to him، «reason is the slave of the passions».

In the view of Islamic philosophers، famous definition for causality is «giving existence». The Molla Sadra believes that the Principle of causality with its branches constitutes a single body، and its acceptance is considered as postulate. Discussion about the criteria of neediness of effect to cause is considered branch of the general law of causality which is necessary in discussion of causal necessity. It is obvious that Molla Sadra ''s view in determining the criteria for the neediness is the Possibility in the sense of need. as regards، this principle is itself a branch of the general principle of causality، and the Islamic philosophers think if someone refuses to accept a branch of causality، cannot believe in a causal system in the world. and as regards، the principle of cognation Is assumed to be identical with the intellectual rule of Al-vaheed (from The one will not be issued except the one) and the principle of The impossibility of infinite regress are other important branches of the principle of causality; acceptance of this branches Required in duality in the outside world from mind and dividing existence to the cause and effect and grades in the reality of existence. But on the other hand، Molla Sadra talks about personal unity of existence and also considers it as the conclusion of his intellectual analysis، not as something merely mystical and has explicit expressions such as: In views of Professor Motahari and Professor Javadi Amoli which both are raised in Sadraism system، and the originality of existence and Possibility in the sense of need are assumed in it; these are the result of dual discussions of Molla Sadra. In the first standpoint (Professor Motahari) is proposed a kind of existence That is completely dependent; But In the latter standpoint (Professor Javadi Amoli) pure neediness is proposed، and interpretation to existence is a kind of metaphor. In the first interpretation، the place of science and philosophy has reserved، and the mystic quote introduce d as anti- science and philosophy. But the second interpretation، speaking in completion of philosophy، Does not contradict with pure mysticism and unity; namely in the first interpretation is propo sed the systemic nature of the world and causal relationships and their different existential levels; But In the second interpretation، there is no relationship between causes and effects، and all effects، immediately connect to an independent unity. So، as these interpretations indicate، from Molla Sadra، s philosophical basis، personal unity of existence and also its unity of grades of existence are Extractive. However، according to some intellectual analysis، and considering some explicit statements of Molla Sadra in the discussions of emanation which criticize The first intelect to be the first emanation and introduces it according to the view''s of philosophers (Molla Sadra، 1990، vol 2، p 332)، And says about the expanded emanation and does not know the relationship between expanded emanation and God as the causal relationship in the meaning of giving existence. He also considers the result of causality discussion that is leaded to emanation and personal unity، as the completion of causality. It can be concluded that Molla Sadra presents the final result as personal unity and causality in the sense of emanation. This is the point that is also finally accepted by Professor Motahari to some extent that in terms of Motahari، s view، Molla Sadra ''s theory of grades of exitence is according to the formal philosopher''s disposition.

In Analytic philosophy، when the topic of the life’s meaning comes up، primarily the concept of words of “meaning” and “life” is clarified. The analytic philosophers، often، have explained “meaning” in two senses: 1-The life’s aim 2-The life’s value or the life’s function and advantage. In some approaches، in analysis of the concept of “life”، life has been considered beyond routine، usual، and repeated levels of it. This approach shows the meaningful life demonstrates through a transcendent Being. Hence، in theistic religions، human’s life، when according to commands of that Being، is more meaningful and valuable. It is meta-naturalism view in debate on “life’s meaning”.

In the field of religious studies، study of previous religions and orders is important، because divine religions have a one truth and essence; Judaism، Christianity and Islam are relative religions and have a common history. All three are attributed to religion of Abraham، Hence are called the «Abraham religions». All three of them have Semitic origins; therefore they are called the «Semitic religions». All three believe in one God، and for that، they are called «monotheistic religions». Though Islam subscribes the past of Jewish، does not necessarily defends all the Jewish teachings and holy books in its current form. However، these two religions are very similar and that is the value that they have given to religion. So that، none of the major live religions of the world have not such esteem. Many similarities in principles of the two relative religions have provided a suitable ground for comparative studies. In the field of law studies also found many similarities between two religions. The scriptures as a source of laws، criminal law، criminalization and punishments and… all are of the important law issues that the way of their expression in both religions have many similarities. Since religion has a special place in Judaism and Islam، this research aims to review the principles and elements of criminal as well as some penalty goals in the religious teachings sphere of these two religions. In this regard، verses of The Quran، authentic hadiths (traditions) and The Torah should be known as the main sources of recognition of these two religious orders. Although Torah has been distorted، but this does not mean that everything is distorted in Torah. There are many juridical and ethical rules in Torah that cannot doubt in their divinity. In the other hand، ma ny of the adventures happened to the Moses Prophet and the Israelites have been mentioned with slight variations in The Qur''an which is immune to any distortion. In the juridical doctrines of religions، Jewish and Muslim have common concepts of criminal law which sometimes are in compliance and in some points is divergence. Requirements and criminal responsibilities have been defined what the holy legislator has set for criminals or sinners of this world، whether their crime is related to a sin which has a particular punishment or to other sins، whether criminal punishment is corporal or financial. Among the principles of Requirements in criminal law is the principle of legality of criminal offenses. Despite misconceptions about the founding this principle، what history shows is that this important principle in criminal law of Judaism and the criminal law of Islam is emphasized by clear wordings of The Qur''an and The Torah. Another principle of this case emphasized is «personal being of the punishment» which has also been emphasized in The Qur''an in many verses. The remarkable point about this is the apparent differences between The Qur''an and The Torah about this principle that these subjects should not be inconsistent with the principle of «personal being of the punishment». B ecause these verses are intended to express the conditional and hereditary effects of sin، and transferring the evil to future generations، not transferring apparent punishment and penalties to them. Criminal responsibilities sometimes are missing in the objective form and sometimes in the subjective form. In some cases، the legislator، for some reason، removes the title of criminal from t he action، on the others، the causes of disclamation and deterioration most lie in the criminal person not in transition. These factors، with some variations have come in both religions. Penalty goals in both religions have also many similarities in many aspects among which may be cited protection of Divine sanctuary، concealing the effect of the sin، restraining the offender and his family and friends.

This research is a critical analysis on the place of human and his integration with religious issues، and the subject of disobedience and rebellion. In addition، topics such as reward، punishment، redemption and salvation of mankind in two great works of literature of the world، Masnavi by Mawlana and Paradise Lost by Milton have been comparatively discussed. Rumi''s poetry and thought has been accepted by commons and special people in Iran and the world. Rumi is one of the few supreme poets in Persian language and the world. Generally، Milton has Known as the greatest English poet after Shakespeare، and his Paradise Lost as the greatest English fiction poem. This work is a the well-known epics of human-divine composed in live new languages، and comparing these two works even in one field of speech، indeed is the comparison of two thoughts، two nations، and two ancient cultures. The author attempts to examine the similarities and contrasts of the two poems of these two great poets on the subjects of human، God، and Satan and the world، to achieve the analytical and critical comparison of them in this context. In this paper the author tries to base the Paradise Lost of Milton and compare it with the ideas of Mawlana common to imagine man''s first story and his disobedience، religious approaches، and finally the end presumed for mankind. In these two poems، contrast between «God» and «man» is derived from the fundamental relationship between «God» and «man». Milton while calls God، our Heavenly Father and refer to his role of creativity، entitles him as the dominant power، All mighty، the victorious winner، Glorious and Holy ruler، powerful king، and in one word، omnipotent. The Creator that all creatures are worshiping him، the omnipotent could be seen his capability remarks in everywhere، the unique structure of the universe beautiful is his own and the glorious ruler، sitting over the skies، sometimes invisible and sometimes visible، even manifested on faith at the lowest created! Powerful king that nobody cannot hurt and destroy him and no one has the ability to limit the scope of his empire! He is the Almighty and Creator of all things، from beginning to the end. Such an attitude toward God from the perspective of Protestant religion is a reminder of God''s eternal power that humans are bound to and have to obey what the Lord predestined them. «Omnipotent» is not a prudent combination، it is a phantom and exaggerated expression that describes someone who has unlimited power، superior، independent of everyone else and bring everything should come and predestines all things.

Of the most central elements of religions and most important issues in theology and the Contemporary study of religion is the category of faith and its greatest impact on various aspects of life. Faith، in Islamic and Christian theology، has common and also distinct aspects. The truth of Faith in Islamic thought was multidimensional and consists of a wide range of Confession of language، intellectual knowledge، heart affirmation and inner experience to the treatment involves external actions. In Christianity، it was faith in confirmation of the revealed proposition that led to a sense of transcendence and meta-proposition and created Interest mode in human And sometimes faith apply to the experience of presence and manifestation of God in life. The position of consensus and association between Islam and Christianity was consists of the doctrine of Belief in God and the prophecy and resurrection. This belief is based on the functionalist view affected on body and psyche (or soul) health of the human. The impact of Faith on physical and mental health has been separately approved by the specialists. The impacts of faith and religious teachings on physical health have been investigated through psycho-neuro-physiological way that Faith and Religious teachings produce positive emotions in human. The emotions through autonomous nervous system strengthen the immune system and its optimal performance in a way that the messenger molecule called neuropeptide Y، carry the messages related to thoughts and transport it through the blood circulation، and the mental state directly relate to the body''s cells. This is the most important factor in strengthening or weakening the immune system influenced by the thoughts and beliefs. Moreover، Te''osumatic medicine known as the God-body medicine، after the psychosomatic or psycho-body medicine confirms the impact of faith on the health and recovery of individuals. They believe that illness and death of individuals، scarcely have a single cause، mind and mental and psychic states of the individual affects the incidence process of the disease and treatment; Although they does not reject the effect of bacteria and viruses and etc. These medical professionals have presented seven principles for recovery and treatment of diseases، in particular، the incurable disease such as cancer that the first principle is belief in God (faith). but the effect of faith in mental and psychic health has been approved in other forms. Faith in the field of psychology equal with religious attitude and orientation. According to a number of studies، researchers have confirmed that there is a positive relationship between the religious attitude and mental health. The author''s analysis the religious faith and religious attitudes and belief that there is a minimal relationship between religious faith and religious attitudes، so there is a relationship between faith and mental health.

The Sadraee''s transcendental philosophy in theology affected by the authentic Divinity texts and discussions and has inspired in resolving many of the theological and philosophical problems of this school. Therefore، this school can be considered as the most prominent school. Although، Molla sadra does not know enough the argument and arguing without conscience and purification of self، but، the most based on imported sources of revelation and interpretations of Imams (AS) and believes that truths of faith are not possible except by purifying heart from the whims، thinking of the Divine verses، hadith of the Prophet (The Prophet''s massage) and his tribe، and following the way of the pious men. Proposing the problem of Divine Decrees of fate in transcendental philosophy and explaining its principles that brought up in both the philosophical texts and exegesis of the followers of transcendental philosophy are of the most important Instances that this school takes impression from religious texts. Decrees of fate has various levels، such as essential and actual، scientific and objective، divine creation and divine legislation، fixed and variable، that is every level take into consideration the discussion of Divine Decrees of fate from a particular direction. Divine Decrees of fate in one dimension is related to the degrees of Divine knowledge and the quality of Divine knowledge on what is apart from God، on the other dimension، is related to the question of the necessity of The existence system and the quality of causal connection between the elements of the universe and the origin of necessity of The existence system that has been expressed in these schools with a certain thoughtfulness in both theology and cosmology. Divine Decrees of fate in comparing with universal realms of existence is considered the same as degree of intellectual forms beyond the spiritual and natural forms that emanated from the god، suddenly and timelessly and called one of the degrees of Divine knowledge that is Divine Decrees of fate، and in the higher phase it ends to Divine intrinsic knowledge. On the other hand، the causal system of the universe and attributing that to its complete cause which is the origin of necessity and creation of the universe is also called objective Decrees of fate. Therefore، the Divine Decrees of fate is the indicative of attributing the whole universe to God in two degrees of scientific and objective. So، detailed analysis and explanation of Divine Decrees of fate should be based on both، Divine knowledge in one side، and necessity of the universe on the other side، because Divine Decrees of fate explains both of them، and paying attention to one of them and neglecting the other، does not reveal to us the fact of Divine Decrees of fate.

Mu''tazilite was a group of Muslim theologians، who attributed themselves to the just people; Reference of justice among them was that God calculates human actions. They believed each person is responsible for his actions. This was the problem that caused many disagreements between Muslims. Is the man responsible for his actions or not? Whether human on their actions have a will or not? And this old proposition in which the human mind is always engaged is also important in the Mu''tazilite. The Mu''tazilite believes that good and evil are essential and rational and the command of legislator is discoverer and demonstrator not proving (the subject that of witch something affirmed). And before the arrival of the Religions، the wise men based on their wisdom have the ability to distinguish between Good and Evil and are obliged to perform good actions and avoided from evil and sins. But Asharites said: Good and Evil of objects and actions are juridical. The Mu''tazilite believes that divine actions have purposes. Because، if god has not a purpose in creation، his actions would be futile. While، the god is omniscience and futile act from he will not be issued. From the view of the Mu''tazilite، the god should be act witch for human is right، this requires wisdom، justice and Divine perfection. Since، God does everything، looking for rational reason for it; So، He could not ask anything less than ideal situation for humans. But according to Asharites، the right act is not necessary for God. Divine will of God is absolute، no conditions or restrictions for it، except the possibility of the objects. So، everything belongs to Him and His will and nothing is impossible for Him. But Mu''tazilite based on this belief that the system of universe is the fittest and complete، were deprived any kind of defect، evil and oppression from God with this difference that there are two words: Some of the Mu''tazilite believed that God is able to do oppression and tyranny، but he does not it; but Nazzam (One of the Mu''tazilites)، and some of the others says: God is not capable to doing evil and sins and oppression. He said: «The evil inherently is Incorrect and that is just the evil that obstacle to attribute the evil act to God. So، prescribing and occurring of evil by Him is also evil، therefore، the evil prevents prescribing of evil action from God: Leibniz، E uropean philosopher of the seventeenth century، for many concepts such as good and justice and many other moral concepts، independent of the Divine will، values and knows them in itself، Containing of meaning and reasonable essence. Leibniz even express this issue against Descartes view:» Descartes says if objects are good or evil، they are so، just according to the factor of divine will… the answer of Leibniz is that if we accept the speech of Descartes on Divine Will، and eternal truths، the conclusion will be denying the Divine Knowledge. According to him (Leibniz)، If the truth is dependent on the will of God، not on essence of objects، divine knowledge will be precedent on essence of objects and as a result، it does not have the truth as its belonging and such a knowledge will be irrational.

shafe is usually applied as even against odd in Arabic language and literature. Ragheb Isfahani mentions that «shafe means inclusion of something to the same itself and intercession is ordering to something else، so that the intercessor helps him and he also requests the intercessor. Application of intercession is mostly where the veneration of higher ranking person to a lower ranking one is enclosed and intercession in resurrection day is also among these cases». All Muslims believe the prophet’s intercession، but they have different opinions about the manner of its effect. Ghazi Abd al-Jabbar believes that intercession is for good and obedient peoples، not sinners and the result of intercession is increasing the degree and the rewards of beneficent people، not rescuing sinners. Therefore، there is no intercession leading to forgiving for those sinners، who have not repented of great sins. On the contrary، Fakhr-e-Razi believes that the prophet‘s intercession is a means for preventing those people deserving torture from entering hell and those who have entered hell and are tortured، exit from it and enter heaven via the prophet‘s intercession. Ghazi Abd al-Jabbar has resorted intellectual and narrative reasons to prove his claim that intercession is for those believers with deeds، not for sinners who have conducted great sins. Of course، his main reasons have been resulted from The Qur''ans verses. Ghazi Abd al-Jabbar (and mutazilites) who is accused of wrong interpretation of The Qur''ans verses has also followed the same path in the case of intercession. Fakhr-e-Razi has referred to the reasons in his Great Interpretation and given them proportionate answers to his Theological disposition (Asharites).

Prophethood، possesses a profound significance in the Abrahamic religions. Prophets act as mediums، through whom the message of God is received and delivered to people، and thus fulfill two kinds of epistemological and Responsible functions: one related to the prophetic “gnosis” of the divine message and the other to the missionary “responsibility” of enacting it. But do the position and functions of the prophets come to an end with his death? For the Abrahamic religions، the answer is ‘No’. In these religions، we are faced with a phenomenon that can be called the “Transmission of the position and functions of prophets”. This article attempts to explain this phenomenon in the context of the holy texts of these three religions and in the terms of the three mechanisms of Blessedness، Heredity and Successorship. Although، the separation between this mechanisms in analysis، necessarily، they are not separate in instances. The first mechanism of such Transmission، by which the prophet transmits on his position and functions to his Children''s، is Blessedness. Blessedness is a special covenant between God and Abraham، and is reported twice in the Old covenant. By this mechanism، God blesses to Abraham and promises to bless his Children''s، to make them as many as the dust of the earth، and to make them victorious in the face of their enemies. Thus، the mechanism of blessedness becomes institutionalized in Abraham’s family and household، and passes on from one generation to the next. In the New covenant، Jesus and Virgin Mary are called “the Blessed Ones”، Jesus is described as the Source of Blessedness for everyone، and all the true Christian believers are considered as the heirs to Abraham’s Blessedness. In the noble Quran، not only the covenant of God’s Blessedness with Abraham and Isaac is mentioned، but also Jesus is referred to as “the Blessed One” (“Mubarak”). However، it can be said that mechanism of Blessedness does not transmit the position and functions of Abraham as much as، it paves the way for the other two mechanism by making Abraham’s children countless and victorious.