نشریه تاریخ اسلام و ایران
سال بیست و سوم شماره 18 (تابستان 1392)

Money as an intermediate in exchanges has always been a reflection of economic situation of a historical period. Safavid era’s economy was commodity and consumer, in which money - only in urban economy and foreign trade- played an intermediate role. Golden, silver and copper coins were supplied by Iran's own mines or from export of products such as silk and also from other foreign merchants. In this era, Bazaar was the main center of circulation of money in urban economy and all monetary transactions were done by moneychangers. Foreign trade was also in control of Jewish and Banian (Indian) and Armenian merchants, who were the biggest importers of any coins from the Ottoman Empire. The lack of money in Safavid’s period was one of the main problems of the economy and it also was the result of money smuggling by Dutch and Indians on the one hand and money saving by people and the government on the other hand. Gradually, this problem led to reduction of value of the money and a rise in prices, finally weakness and collapse of Safavid were the consequences of those problems

The conditions the Persian gulf changed dramatically with the geographical discoveries of the late 15th century A.D (9th A.H) and those old and long term structures which guaranteed the flourish of trade and free navigation in the Persian gulf which were politically and economically dominated by Iran faded away. The British East India Company was established to regulate the commercial trades of British colonies in the east, the commercial permission of which was granted by Queen Elizabeth in 1600 A.D/1010 A.H. The company's agencies got started in Bombay and Calcutta 15 years after its primary establishment. The company, two decades after its establishment took control of the Persian gulf and as result commercially fell under its influence. The Portuguese defeat and expulsion from Hormuz helped a lot in fixing the position of the British East India Company. During the Afghan sovereignty and the age of Nader Shah, despite all the problems and confusion, the British Company continued its activities in southern boundaries of Iran. At the same time when Britain's political activities began in the Persian gulf, the attempts of this colonist government to gain the rule of the Persian gulf and Oman sea and also the violation of Iran's sovereignty and national interests by this government was noticeable more than ever. This issue became more and more evident in the age of Zand dynasty (1175-1203 A.H) and particularly in the early age of Qajar dynasty (1235 A.H). The findings of this research suggest that the most important strategic policy of the British East Indian Company has been to isolate and disable Iran and to limit its role in the Persian gulf.

History of Islamic medicine is an important arena in the studies of Islamic history. Because of its need to medicine, Islamic society from the beginning paid attention to medicine, and Muslims started to write many books in this field; at the same times, they used the available experience of Iranians, Indians and Romans in medicine relating this issue. Al-kay or cauter izing was one of the medical experiences and conventional ways of societies in treating illnesses. While its origin is unknown, cauter izing has been used in nearly all ancient societies and transmitted through generations. This term and method of cure, which has been customary between Muslim physicians, attracts attention in hadiths and religious traditions variously. Until the modern medicine, it has been used to treat many internal or external illnesses and had some effects. In many Islamic medical books there are important points about necessity of c auter y, the illnesses which can be treated by this method, and tools and the way of using it. This article offers a historical view about this method.

Proper opportunity of the city of Genoa, its cooperation during the Crusades, and the evolution in the terms of trade organization and practices at the same time that Mongol empire was establishing, formed a new round of intercontinental trade. The importance of commerce for the Mongol continued as a tradition in Ilkhanids. Genoese commercial presence in eastern ports and the Black Sea and also mutual needs made close relations between the two sides, and a certain period in bilateral relations between Iran and the city of Genoa began. Genoaeses launched to create and deploy the consoles to supervise the their merchants in towns such as Tabriz. The Silk Road governments who had enjoyed benefits of intercontinental trade, provided facilities and expedited the procedure of commerce. Although Ilkhanids did not concern politics in business activities, With the various defeat in Sham, their activities got influenced by politics. Policy of impact to the business interests were pursued by military activities. Ilkhanids failed in participating in cooperation with Genoa due to their benefit of business with Mamluks.

Zoroastrian’s purification rituals are one of the most visible aspects of Zoroastrianism that root in the Avesta’s texts. But it seems that these customs which were considered as a preservative of human communities from harm and evil diseases in the pre-Zoroastrian period, have been changed after that period of time and their joining to the religious teachings of Zoroasterian. In this paper, at first we tried to bring up the historical background of these ceremonies and then by the study of Avestan scriptures, all rituals which were relevant to this project, were accurately described and explained. According to the them, origins and philosophy of these ceremonies and opposing ideas have also been studied. The findings of this study suggest that all the inserted texts about these in Avesta especially in Vandidad - which its’ large part deals with the issue of purification- show that the purity and the relevant orders made a broad range of human and natural elements life. These customs are identified by terms like: Barašnom, Pādyāb, Sagdid, etc and in some cases they have been expressed without any special terms. Existence of customs like usage of Gomez (urine) in the ancient time is common. Although emphasis on purification shows Zoroastrian ideology of duality, but severe indulgence in Vandidad is discordant with the nature of Zoroaster’s massage.