مجله فنون ادبی
سال سیزدهم شماره 3 (پیاپی 36، پاییز 1400)

The Devalrani and Khizrkhan Masnavi by Amir Khosrow Dihlavi, composed in 715 (Hijri lunar), not only contains awakening points about history and the community and context of India in the seventh and early eighth century (Hijri lunar), but also includes valuable information about the uses of the Persian language and its lexicon in that particular period and area. Amir Khosrow Dihlavi (651-725 Hijri lunar) is the most well-known and outstanding Persian poet in the Indian subcontinent who has left numerous and various works as heritage.One of the significant features of his poems is the use of rare and new word-formation. If we take a random look at the entries of the Dehkhoda Dictionary, below some of the entries, there are some pieces of evidence of the poems of Amir Khosrow as well as the writers and orators before him. We can even find entries with exclusive evidence from Amir Khosrow’s poems. Additionally,  some traces of his morphological innovations have been found in the works of poets and writers after him. Like Hafiz and Mohtasham Kashani, who have used ‘aeeneh ru’ and ‘vahdat abad’ in their sonnets, respectively, Bidel Dehlavi has also used ‘niaz andish’. Jami has used the word ‘belasanj’ and Orfi Sharazi and Qudsi Mashhadi have used ‘ragham sanji’ and ‘faramush gashtegan’ in their sonnets. These all have already been used by Amir Khosrow in Devalrani and Khizrkhan (the first three words), qeran sa’deyn (the fourth mentioned word), ayine-ye eskandari (the fifth word) and in a sonnet from qurat-ul-kamal (the sixth).Nevertheless, so far there have been few lexical analyses of the works of Amir Khosrow Dihlavi though, in some literary research, the works of Amir Khosrow have been occasionally examined to some extent.  Among these studies is the one entitled ‘An examination of some influential Indian words in the Persian poetry’ by Rezayi Baghbidi. In this study, Baghbidi made an etymological analysis of some words found in Persian texts and provided examples for each word from the well-known Persian poets. Among these examples are some verses from Amir Khosrow. In contrast to the study by him, Salim Neysari made a comprehensive analysis of the lexical innovations in Amir Khosrow’s poems in an article entitled ‘Innovations of Amir Khosrow Dihlavi in combining Persian words’. He set ‘Noh Sepehr’ (nine heavens) Masnavi as the basis of his work and the result of his work was a list of the compounds and words used in this Masnavi for which there is either no entry in Dehkhoda Dictionary (28 cases) or there is an entry but no examples (nine cases) or there are both an entry and examples from the works of Amir Khosrow (two cases).The present study is an attempt to select and introduce rare and new words from Devalrani and Khizrkhan and its innovative word combinations and to examine Amir Khosrow’s word-combination way to show that this well-known Persian poet in the Indian subcontinent has been successful in creating new compounds. In addition, considering the fact that some of the existing word combinations in this poem have no entries and examples in the most important Persian dictionary, i.e. Dehkhoda Dictionary, the present study also seeks to introduce these new words and word combinations to be used in this dictionary and in the future lexical analysis studies.It should be noted that Devalrani and Khizrkhan is one of the romantic-historical masnavis of Amir Khosrow. The subject of this masnavi is about the love that KhizrKhan, the son of Sultan Ala’eddin Muhammad Khalaji, had for Diveldi, daughter of Raay Karan (ruler of Gujarat). Amir Khosrow composed this romantic poem in 4519 verses in the prosodic weight of Musadas-e Mahzoof/Maqsoor in 715 (Hijri lunar).In this study, first the whole poem was studied and 240 words and compounds that qualified as new and novel were selected. Then, reviewing different poetry and prose books by poets and authors who lived before the age of Amir Khosrow, 125 words and word combinations, which had been already used in these texts were put aside. For this purpose, in addition to searching the digital version of the Dehkhoda Dictionary and digital library of Noor and Noormags database, and the Ganjoor website, various textbooks in print were also searched including Tafsir-e Nasafi, Koush-nameh, Monsha’at-e Khaqani, Ali-nameh, Loqat-e Fors, Sha’eran-e Bi-divan, Mersad ol-Ebad, Nafthat ol-Masdoor, Faramarz-nameh, Tarikh ol-Vozara, Sandbad-nameh, Divan-e Najib od-Din Jorbazeqani, etc… .The results of analysis revealed a final number of 115 words and compounds not used in the works before Devalrani. These words were classified into different groups as follows:Group A: words or compounds for which there is no entry in Dehkhoda dictionary or there is an entry but the meaning intended by Amir Khosrow cannot be found in Dehkhoda dictionary (85 cases);Group B: words and compounds with entries in the Dehkhoda Dictionary but no examples (19 cases);Group C: words and compounds with entries in the dictionary and examples from Devalrani and Khizrkhan (four cases);Group D: words and compounds for which there are examples from the poets after Amir Khosrow (five cases); and finallyGroup E: words the meanings of which have been provided in the Dehkhoda Dictionary but with examples from the verses of other works of Amir Khosrow (two cases). The results show that Devalrani and Khizrkhan contains a number of unique and novel words and word combinations that not only reveal the poet’s skill and talent in producing new words but also reflect the lexical environment of the Persian language in India at the end of the seventh and early eighth century (Hijri lunar). Furthermore, a part of the lexical benefits of these sets of words includes the unique names and proper nouns used in this text. Out of these names, 11 names are Indian proper names used to refer to ethnicities and groups, social titles, carriers and riding animals, musical instruments, flowers and plants, one of the gods of the ancient India, and also materials and clothes. Besides these Indian proper names, there are a number of Persian names and proper names related to the living environment in India in this poem. These names also refer to ethnic groups, a type of riding animal, one of the coins being used at that time, a type of material, two types of flower and plant, and one of the partners. Additionally, an alternative word is used for riddle and spy news.In addition to these words, this romantic-historical masnavi has preserved some unique word combinations within it; words combinations that the poet has created using 31 non-repetitive (unique) methods.

The critics and those who study contemporary poems recognize the world of poetry and its poetics through its title. The title functions as an entry for the poem. Generally, the title has a prominent place in reading poems, enjoying the pleasure of literature, and receiving the theme. Focusing on this element leads to both knowing the status of the poet and drawing the co-ordinates and finally explaining and understanding his poetry.The category of title in modern Persian poetry is completely different from traditional and pre-existing poetry. In contemporary poetry, the title is not only for the naming but also has other tasks in terms of aesthetics, artistic, and semantic perspective.  Choosing the title of the poem, on the one hand, provides the audience with a deep perception of the content while and on the other hand, after reading the poem as a compound, it helps the audience expand the semantic domain. The title can also be considered as the identity card of the poem.Manouchehr Atashi, like many poets and critical writers of his time, believes that fundamental changes in modern poetry are not limited to issues such as the meter, rhyme, theme but extends to other dimensions one of which is the selection of titles. He is a poet who has highlighted the focus on the title in contemporary Persian poetry as a necessity in terms of structure, concept, and aesthetics. By focusing on the title of the poetry, this contemporary poet has shown that making fundamental changes in poetry can be a signature, not necessarily a founding. The basis and meaning of the signature are that the poet can consider a new attitude without destroying the capacities and contents of traditional poetry, relying on some of its possibilities.In most of Atashi's poems, a tangible and meaningful relationship can be observed between the title and the text. The relationship between the titles of the collection is more based on their relationship from the perspective of the structure of components and multi-component compositions than can be seen from a semantic point of view. In addition, the predominant aspect of the poet's tendency from this perspective is towards nature and the southern climate.In poems that have no title, this element appers as a tool to expand the semantic range. The use of titles such as indicative sentences, written signs, uncomplete sentences, English sentences, etc. in harmony with the content shows the poet's view of the influential place of the title in the structure. Finally, looking at the poet's etymology, we understand well why the absence of the title does not cause a defect in traditional poetry, such as the sonnet, but many contemporary poems are entirely dependent on the existence of this component in such a way that their change could have a direct impact on the meaning and basis of poems.There seems to be a dirth of research pertaining to the subject of "title". Also, the samples for studies in the field of title do not meet the needs of the audience. Paying attention to this issue could open a new window for critics and enthusiasts to better understand this poet.The purpose of this research is to focus on four collections of Manouchehr Atashi poems: Other Song, Soil Song, Accident in the Morning, and the Last Event and show the importance of choosing titles and their dependence on the text, initiative, and creativity in choosing the title. The results show how the contemporary modern poet is well aware of the function and effect of the title of the poem and uses it as a tool to expand the semantic range of poems and instill the concepts of an audience as well as creating an impact.

In an illustrated manuscript, symbols are usually used to transfer concepts from a literary text to an image. This research deals with how the cryptic and hidden concepts of Haftpeykar’s story are reflected on the illustrated manuscript kept in Shahid Motahari University, based on the analytical-descriptive method. The results show that symbols are used in the illustrated manuscript based on the symbolic meanings of the text of the poem. In other words, symbols have been selected to convey the main message of the story, but they do not follow just the literary text but the choice of symbols in the illustrated manuscript is also related to the cultural proportions of their time. The research method in this study is documentary and analytical and the data are collected using a library research method.In mystical literature, deep meanings are expressed using symbols. The symbol displays the theme of the imagination artistically, because it is interpretable. Since Iranian painting has a long history with Persian poetry and literature, over time it merged with Old Iranian wisdom and Islamic mysticism in a way that literary texts became the basis for the creativity of Iranian painters. Nizami’s Haftpeykar is the most mysterious collection of his five versified stories. Haftpeykar’s message is spiritual excellence. Every Gonbad’s story contains a teaching for Bahram Goor to enlighten his soul. The miniature (attached image) narrates a section of the story in which the protagonist, after discovering the secret of the black-wearing people of the city, meets Lady Parizadegan.According to the results, in the miniatures of the “Black Gonbad” story of Haftpeykar from Nizami’s Khamseh (5 poetries or treasures) kept in Shahid Motahari University, symbols are divided into three categories regarding the text. The first group consists of symbols that are used exactly in the text of the poem and symbolic concepts are expressed with their help. The second group contains the symbols that do not appear in the text of the poem, but the miniature is used to convey the symbolic meanings of the story. Finally, the third category includes the symbols that are not a reflection of meanings of the text of the poem but they are influenced by factors outside the text and work to express concepts beyond the text of the poem.

There is no doubt that the quantitative meter is the essence of music and prosodies, providing the link between poetry and music. In addition to the time priority that music has over prosodies, the similarity between these elements makes it apparent that prosodies have their origin in music. On this basis, one can gain a new perspective on the structure of prosodies by considering the rules governing music. It is true that the main elements of prosody originate from music tetrachords, but the deviation of the prosody from the characteristics of a music tetrachord and not following the right logic in assembling the main elements of prosody and the 19-element sets of prosody meters has left many people having difficulty understanding and remembering the names of prosody meters. In this paper, in an analytical-comparative manner, after preliminary explanations about  a quantitative meter, syllables, instruments and acatalectics, and further explanation and emphasis on music tetrachords, at first, by enumerating the characteristics of tetrachord (type, tension, number and division of notes), we compared the prosody meter forms with the music tetrachords. As a result, the number of main prosodic elements was reduced from ten to three. This adjustment occurs on the one hand by fading the elements such as "Faelon" and "Faoolon", "Motafaelon" and "Mafaelaton" from the main element, and on the other hand by substituting “Faelaton” for  "Mafoolato" in the prosodic circles. As the sets of prosodic meters are the result of repeating one prosodic element or combining two types of prosodic elements by imitating the positional structure in music, after comparing the prosodic elements with musical tetrachords, a new structure is presented regarding the prosodies and the sets of prosody meters in order to reduce complexity. At this stage, with the remaining three elements (Mostafelon, Faelaton and Mafaeelon) in a new way, we are encountered with ten sets of prosody meters instead of nineteen famous sets of prosody meters, without even a single meter being ignored or a poetic verse remaining in the task.Concerning the meters used in Persian poetry as research,  the most frequently used meters are in the same seven main sets of poetry meters including "Hazaj", "Ramal", "Rajaz", "Mojtas", "Mozare", "Khafif" and "Sari. In this new classification, in addition to the main "Hazaj" set of prosody meter (Mafaeelon), the "Mutaqareb" set of prosody meter (Faoolon), "Ta’wīl" (Faoolon Mafaeelon), and "Maqloob-e-Tawīl" (Mafaeelon Faoolon) are also placed. In the "Ramal" set of prosody meter, in addition to the "old Ramal" (Faelaton), there are also the sets of prosody meters including "Motadarek" (Faelon), "Madid" (Faelaton Faelon), "Kamel" (Motafaelon), and "Wafer" (Mafaelaton). However, in "Rajaz" set of prosody meter, we can also place the "Basiṭ" set of prosody meter (Mostafelon Faelon) and consider this meter as the set of prosody meter of "Rajaz Mosaman Marfu".Since the changes made in the main elements of poetry meter of "Faelon" are close to "Faelaton" rather than the element of "Mostafelon", we decided to place this set of poetry meter instead of "Mojtas" set of poetry meter. In " Mojtas " set of poetry meter (Mostafelon Faelaton), in addition to "Basiṭ", "Monsareh" set of prosody meter (Mostafelon Mafoolato) is also present by removing "Mafoolato" and putting "Faelaton" in its place as the changes made in the main elements of poetry meter of "Faelato", "Faelan" and "Faelon" are closer to the element of "Faelaton" rather than "Mafoolato".There is no other set of prosody meter in “Mozare” set of prosody meter. The "Khafif" set of prosody meter consists of two sets of prosody meters including "Old Khafif" (Faelaton Mostafelon Faelaton) and “Muqtazab” (Mafoolato Mostafelon→ Faelaton Mostafelon). The "Sari," set of prosody meter (Mostafelon Mostafelon Mafoolato → Mostafelon Mostafelon Faelaton) was shown by transforming “Mafoolato” to “Faelaton”. The “Gharib”, “Jadid” and “Mashakel” sets of prosody meters retained their old form. Although in this article, prosody meters are classified based on maqam music, a new classification could also be made based on the instrumental music.There are five main scales in instrumental music: the “Māhur” scale (including Māhur and Rast Panjgah), “Segah” scale, “Chahārgāh” scale, “Homayun” scale (including Homayun and new Isfahan), and “Šur” scale (including Šur instrument and the songs of Abu Ata, old Isfahan, Afshari, Bayat-e- Tork, Dashti, and other sub-songs including Qatar and Bayat-e- Kurd). Following the system governing instrumental music, if we intend to classify circles and the sets of prosody meters, with a little tolerance (If we ignore the back and forth of the prosodic elements and the repetition of one element and do not differentiate between “Mostafelon” “Faelaton” with “Faelaton” “Mostafelon” or “Faelaton Mostafelon Faelaton”), prosody meters can be classified under the five titles of sets of prosody meters: "Hazaj", "Ramal", "Rajaz", "Mojtas", and " Mozare " in two circles including one with unified elements and one with different elements including:Sets of prosody meters with unified elements:- “Hazaj” and its sources (sets of prosody meter including old Hazaj, Motaqareb, Tawīl and Maqlub-e-Tawīl);- “Ramal” and its sources (sets of prosody meter including old Ramal, Motadarek, Wafer, Kamel and Madid);- “Rajaz” (Old Rajaz set of prosody meter).Sets of prosody meters with different elements:- “Mozare” and its sources (sets of prosody meter including old Mozare Qarib, Jadid, Mashakel);- “Mojtas” and its sources (sets of prosody meter including old Mojtas, Khafif, Monsareh, Moqtazab, Basīṭ and Sari).

Linguistic politeness/impoliteness is one of the topics in the theory of pragmatics, through which the hidden layers of language can be revealed. Politeness and impoliteness approaches can be divided into classical and postmodern. In the classical approach, the concept of politeness is mostly fixed and is defined in terms of social behavior as politely. Austin's theory of speech acts and Grice's Conversational Principles are the basis of classical approaches. But in the postmodern approach, the concept of politeness is dynamic and changeable, and is explained by factors such as context and social norms. Since this theory is accounted as one of the new methods of literary text analysis that has not yet been seriously considered in the study of the language of Persian folk tales, this paper is committed to examining its function in the first part of Abu Muslim Nameh.

The main purpose of this paper is to explain in which positions in the text and for what reasons are the strategies of impoliteness used and what kinds of triggers are embedded in each case to indicate the appointed strategy.

This research has been done by descriptive-analytical method and presents the types of verbal impoliteness in the first part of Abu-Muslim Nameh (i.e. Junaid Nameh) based on Culpeper's proposed strategies which combines his earlier and later patterns and is overshadowed by the Spencer-Oatey's theory of "rapport management".

Regarding the strategies used, the results show that out of a total of five Culpeper 'strategies, three strategies of positive impoliteness, negative impoliteness and off-record impoliteness can be seen in the text. Direct positive impoliteness is the most widely used while off-record impoliteness is the least commonly used, which leads to linguistic prominence by creating the different types of irony in the text. Insulting is one of the most prominent forms of the positive impoliteness in Abu-Muslim Nameh. Insults are in categories as moral, religious, national and sexual. Negative impoliteness is usually characterized by signs of intimidation, ridicule, and threat. The threat, in addition to being the result of glorifying and heroics features in epic texts, becomes a factor in hindering and damaging the audience's private face. Off-record impoliteness is less widely used than the other two strategies, and it has mostly appeared ironically. In addition, in the theory of politeness in the sense of power, attention is paid to the interaction of verbal relations. Positions of weakness and strength shape people's verbal behaviors. However, in Abu-Muslim Nameh, the weakness and strength has little effect on verbal actions as inferiors and superiors use verbal behaviors alike.

Faqir Dehlavi, one of the Persian Shia poets, was born in the court of Shah Jahanabad and lived in the 12th century A.H. Dehlavi was one the prolific Persian poets whose famous work is the Dorre Maknun [the Hidden Gem] Masnavi. This Masnavi is romantic and portrays the love affair of Malikeh, the daughter of the Roman emperor, with Imam Hassan Askari, the 11th Imam in the Twelver Shia Islam. The present paper is aimed towards studying the stylistics of Faqir Dehlavi's Dorre Maknun and introducing its manuscripts. This study is conducted using a descriptive-analytical method as well as employing various library resources. The emendation method was grounded upon the basic version. To this end, any observed defects, inaccuracies, and errors, were emendated by the emendators through recording another version, called the alternative version. Initially, a biography of the poet along with his works was briefly provided. Afterwards, the analysis of the topic, the structures and features of the manuscript, and its stylistics and calligraphy were all taken into account. The findings suggest that the stylistic features of Faqir Dehlavi's Dorre Maknun Masnavi include a fluent language, thematic compositions, taskin-e motaharek, explicit analogies, the due use of imageries to the extent that they do not result in word and meaning contradiction and complexities in discourse.  IntroductionMir Shams al-din Faqir Dehlavi was one of the prominent Indian orators who has left behind precious works including Dorre Maknoun [the hidden gem] Masnavi. This Masnavi accounts for a romantic love affair of Malike, the daughter of the Roman Kaiser, with Imam Hasan Askari and the birth of the twelfth Imam named Mahdi. Dorre Maknun Masnavi is an invaluable literary work that has not been thoroughly introduced to the fans of Persian literature yet. This paper is aimed at pondering upon the stylistics of the work and linguistic, thinking, and literary layers besides introducing the Dorre Maknoun Masnavi. The correction method of this version rests upon the correction of the basic version. On this basis, upon finding any blatant mistake, in this paper, we have emendated it by recording an alternative version.  Discussion and Analysis2.1. Introducing the manuscript of Dorre Maknoun Masnavi and its general featuresThere are only four versions of Dorre Maknoun Masnavi left:The first version belongs to the public library of Ayatullah Golpaigani, coded 1/50, dates 1234 (A.H.). The scriber of this version is unknown. It is written beautifully with Nastaliq calligraphyThe second version also belongs to the public library of Ayatullah Golpaigani, coded29/58, dates 1171 (A.H.). The scriber has called himself by KarimAnother manuscript is kept at Malek library in Tehran coded 5611. This version includes a preface at the beginning of the Masnavi. This preface is about 3033 verses, written in Nasta'liq on the 12th of Jamadi-ol Aval. The scriber is Mohammad Ali Khan. This version is written in India in 16 lines on the Terme sheet with the seize 17* 14.5. In the preface, the scriber has stated that the Masnavi includes 3033 verses. But he has opted for 1100 verses. This shows that the version is not the complete one.There is another version in the library of the Astane Ghods-e Razavi, coded 28268 which is written in the broken Nastaliq in the twelfth century without mentioning the name of the scriber. This is not a complete version and there are some missing verses at the beginning.2.2. Stylistic and content characteristics of Dorre Maknoun2.2.1. The thinking featuresAs Faqir Delhlavi is devoted to the Literary Wayback style, the thinking features of this literary style are evident in his poems. Among the important thinking features of Dorre Maknoun one can refer to the praise of the Imams, the Iranian myths, poetic swaggering, the love and position of the beloved ones, determinism, giving reference to Quranic verses and Hadith, the opposition between reason and love, astronomical and mystic terms, and musical instruments.2.2.2. Linguistic levelAt this stylistic level, different problems related to language are put under an analytical lens. At the phonetic level, the following styles are widely used: taskin-e motaharek if necessitated by the meter; Hamza deletion after "alif" if necessitated by the meter; the use of "Italq alif"; the use of "redundant alif"; lexical attenuation if necessitated by the meter. At the lexical level, the Masnavi has employed terms of Christianity, Arabic words, pluralization with "an", the use of "andar" for "dar", "koja" for "ke", and the use of "b" at the initial position of simple past tense. Syntactically, one can point to the use of suffixed verbs, two prepositions for one argument, the use of "mar", the use of "y" indicating uncertainty, the use of "y" indication conditionals, the use of emotive and Neishabouri verb. Concerned with the grammatical level, we can show the use of fake-ezafe, the use of "ra" for "be" and "baraye" and the use of "ou" for inanimate things.2.2.3. Literary characteristicsThe major poetic meter in Faqir Dehlavi's Dorre Maknoun Masnavi is "mafailon/mafailon/faoulon". Of prominent and widely used literary devices in the "Dorre Maknoun Masnavi is referring to analogy (reason to reason, Baligh, Malfuf, Mafrough, Mozmar), irony, metonymy, pun, opacity, allusion, and allegory.  ConclusionFaqir Dehlavi's Dorre Maknoun [the hidden gem] Masnavi narrates the love story of Malike, the daughter of the Roman Kaiser, with Imam Hasan Askari. This Masnavi includes about 4000 verses. There are only 4 versions of this Masnavi left. Imitating Nezami's Khosrow and Shirin, Faqir composed this Masnavi on "mafailon, mafailon, faoulon" meter. As Faqir was skillful in poetic meters, there are few metric disorders. However, there are a few rhyme deficiencies in some verses. Fluent language is the characteristic of this Masnavi. Therefore, obsolete words can not be found in it. However, mystic and astronomical terms in thinking layers, Malike's love to Imam Hasan Askari, reference to Quranic verses and Hadith, praise of Imams, the opposition between reason and love are the important themes of this Masnavi. Arabic words are frequently used in it. Besides the poet has employed nearly all literary devices to deepen and enrich the internal musical aspect of the Masnavi.

One of the importantfactors in the emergence of a literary style is deviation and its frequency in a literary work, leading to its elegance and prominence. Employing new stylistic methods for analyzing literary texts could open new doors to a more accurate perception of such texts. Examining the kinds of deviation is one of the latest methods of stylistic examination of texts which explores the text through all of its linguistic, literary, and semantic layers. In this essay, the sonnets of Attar Neyshabouri have been examined and undergone a descriptive-statistical analysis on structural deviation according to Geoffrey Leech’s (1969) linguistic perspective.The statistical analysis of various aspects of phonetic and lexical deviation in the first 200 sonnets of Attar-E-Neyshabouri’s divan showed the high frequency of newly created Sufist compositions in Attar’s sonnets, which is one of the stylistic prominence of his sonnets. This high frequency shows  that Attar was a poet devoted to mystic values and principles. The results also indicates that phonetic deviations, particularly methods such as “omission and reduction in the structure of words,” are used more than other phonetic elements in Attar’s poems due to the melodic necessity and metric limitations. Furthermore, Attar has expressed a significant portion of his desired mystic themes and experiences in newly created compositions with a Sufist approach. Compositions constructed by Attar’s Sufist mind and language and have never been used in any Sufist text, whether poem or prose, before him. Only 20 percent of these compositions have gone beyond Attar’s lyrics and become his legacy throughout the poetry of Sufist poets coming after him. The rest of these newly created compositions has remained irreplaceable in Attar’s poems.Methods such as “omission and reduction” have the most frequency compared to other phonetic methods. It should be noted that the “reduction” phonetic method is more conspicuous than “omission” in its lexical diversity.Another Attar’s stylistic features that has a high frequency in his sonnets (75 words and compositions) is lexical deviation as well as new and creative words and compositions. This, aligned with Attar’s sonnets, has led to prominence and defamiliarization in his poems and has expressed Attar’s Sufist thoughts in a softer and more literary way. Giving life to new compositions using his power of imagination and mystic worldview has placed Attar among the pioneers of creating mystic compositions and expressions. This could be divided into compound compositions, newly created derived words, and new Sufist compositions in his sonnets. New and invented Sufist compositions comprise 90 percent of the whole terms and compositions. The poet sometimes has attempted to create a word or composition which he used only once. More than 77 percent of the lexical deviation and newly created compositions in Attar’s sonnets belong to inventive words and compositions not found in any other poet’s works. These are among Attar’s innovations in Sufist compositions that no one after him did it again.

Mullah Mohammad Amin-e Qomi, known also by his pen name Darki, is one of the less-known poets of the 11th century AH (? -1063 AH). An investigation of Darki Qomi’s poetry, especially his ghazals (or lyric poems) shows that his poems represent many characteristics of the Indian Style of Persian poetry. A considerable stylistic feature in Qomi Darki’s poetry is a high frequency of occurrence of motifs and the creation of a network of associations around such motifs. This research, which has been conducted in a descriptive-analytical manner by referring to library sources, deals with the study and analysis of ten particular motifs in his poetry. The results show that Darki Qomi often derives these motifs from his surroundings or the common beliefs of the people around him and makes use of them within a network of associations in order to create new motifs.  IntroductionIn addition to the characteristics of the Indian Style such as the multiplicity of allegories and proverbs, the use of colloquial expressions and market jargon, creation of special structures, inspiration from everyday experiences and the surroundings, introduction of new themes, narrow-mindedness, imagination, etc., some further stylistic features have also been introduced as central elements of this style of poetry. One of them is the use of old and new themes or motifs and the creation of a new network of associations around such themes.Poets adopting the Indian Style often take into account a theme as the fundamental or central element of their intended image and, then, by associating words and other elements which have some kind of relationship in terms of congruence or contradiction, etc., expand the chain of associations around that theme to create a network of images whereby each element of a given theme evokes another one and that other one, in its own right, brings about another association and this process goes on. One of the Indian Style poets who pays special attention to this stylistic characteristic is Darki Qomi.  DiscussionIn poetry, a ‘theme’ is mostly regarded as a high-frequency repetitive element in a poet’s work or as various illustrations of a given phenomenon; that is why a ‘motif’ or ‘theme’ has been attributed to whatever is the center of a network of images and a field of associations (Shafiee Kadkani, 1997). Examining the themes and discovering network of their relevant images in a poet’s poems, while it helps to better understand the poet’s poetry, is a way to get familiar with his/her attitudes and ways of thinking as well as his/her level of creativity and capability. Although poets have typically made use of many themes as fixed foundations of different styles, it is only the Indian Style in which poets have insisted on extreme use of motifs to find strange and alien meanings, to create a series of labyrinthine associations, and to create new themes. As a result, using motifs has turned into a stylistic characteristic in the Indian Style.Darki Qomi is among the less-known poets of the Indian Style who was a contemporary of Shah Abbas II. In his poems, in addition to the abundant evidence of using elements and features of the Indian Style, one may also observe such characteristics as the use of colloquial expressions and allusions, allegories, special numerical dependencies, sensory associations, specific similes, paradoxes, etc. The use and association of sequential themes may also be found in his poems in abundance. Darki Qomi, like many other Indian poets, pays special attention to natural elements and phenomena and the objects around them. Such special attention is manifested in the form of extracting poetical themes from human observations in the nature and the environment surrounding the poet; consequently, most of the themes of his poetry are sensory in nature, being the results of his own experiences and observations. Such motifs as ‘eggs of steel’, ‘cuckoo and cypress’, ‘porcelain’, ‘image’, ‘wounds’, ‘Homa’ (or ‘the bird of happiness”), ‘velvet sleep’, ‘paper flower’, ‘linen and moon’, ‘quicksand’, ‘saffron’, ‘cotton’, ‘kohl’, ‘Hindu’, ‘crazy’, etc. are among the most widely used and high-frequency components of the poems of Darki Qomi. He has employed such themes and the chain of associations around them mostly in his ghazals in order to create romantic, love-oriented themes.  Conclusions Darki Qomi is an Indian Style poet who is committed to creating a network of associations around old and new motifs which are typical of the said-above style. He has employed those themes which have been prevalent in the Indian Style with a high frequency, mostly in the form of twin (pair) or multiple elements. Since he has paid the highest attention to the congruence or observance of harmonic peers in dealing with such themes, he has often had a network of associations in his mind around every motif and has used them to create poetic topics.In the present study, some of the themes and associations which are all sensory and are derived from the poet’s own environment or form the beliefs of lay folks have been explored. It was found that the motifs ‘cuckoo and cypress’, ‘image’ and ‘porcelain’ constituted the most frequent network of associations in Qomi’s poetry.

Depending on the poet's genius in using linguistic elements and literary techniques in literary works, capacities are created in the linguistic layers that lead to the artistic connection between language and meaning. Part of the meaning of the text and the poet's thought in these artistic connections are placed in different layers. Accordingly, the layered analysis of a literary work is to discover the artistic connections between language and meaning, which is the main purpose of this study to introduce a suitable approach for a deeper understanding of it. There are certain artistic nuances in the outstanding literary works, in the way linguistic units are used in different layers. Haft-Peykar is also one of the unique works in which various language capacities have been used in different levels to highlight, produce, and induce the content. Some linguistic arrangements in the syntactic layer create a kind of stylistic distinction in this work. The literary work consists of intertwined layers. Therefore, analyzing the Haft-Peykar text with a layered stylistic approach is a proper way to discover the linguistic capacities and artistic function of language units. Since part of the nuances of the style and meaning of the text depends on the selection of syntactic constructions and the way they are used, the analysis of the syntactic layer is very effective in discovering the linguistic capacities and artistic connection of language and meaning. It is tried in this study to discover and represent the artistic functions of language units in producing and inducing the concepts by examining the syntactic layer. Semantic functions in the array of linguistic elements, syntactic sound, sentence length, novice syntactic patterns, and implicit meanings are examples of linguistic arrangements at the syntactic level, the analysis of which leads to a deeper understanding of the content.

Althouhg writers and poets know the art of apostrophe and its examples in the Holy Quran, the poetry of the pre-Islamic era and consequently in Persian poetry, Tarjomān al-Balāghe is the oldest rhetoric work that apostrophe has been mentioned in it. The author not only considers the differences between apostrophes in the Arabic and Persian languages but also shows the formation of the array in the two languages. However, after Tarjomān al-Balāghe, this array has been mentioned in most rhetorical books. But most of these sources are influenced only by the Arabic language and at the same time regardless of what is presented in Tarjomān al-Balāghe, they have dedicated their efforts to adding void comments with no artistic aspects in this industry.According to this study, Persian rhetoric works have enhanced the complexity of the art only by adding the extra details, regardless of the specific features of this language and the scientific criticism of the apostrophe, whereas the description of this array in Tarjomān al-Balāghe is very simple and clear and it is completely compatible with the characteristic of the Persian language and the spirit of this language.Radviāni in Tarjomān al-Balāghe has defined the lexical meaning of apostrophe as “looking back”. In this idiomatic definition, it is said that when the poet means another meaning by a distich, it is called apostrophe. He also quotes Ebne Mo’taz’s viewpoint and says that the narrator turns from addressee to absentee, and from absentee to addressee. Radviāni has given two definitions of the apostrophe array. His first definition is how this array was flown in Persian. Another definition refers to how this art was formed in Arabic, and for the second definition, Radviāni is influenced by Mahasan al-Kalam by Marghinari. Distinguishing between how to flow this in the art in Arabic, and how to form the apostrophe in the Persian language shows that Radviāni has considered Mahasan al-Kalam by Marghinari and consequently Badaye’ by Ebne for writing his book. In this respect, , not only he was not a mere imitator, but also he tried hard to adapt these industries with the spirit of the Persian language.In this article, the researchers reviewed the books of the Tarjomān al-Balāghe, Hadaiq al –Sehr Fi Daqaeq al-She’r, al-Mo’jam, and Adab al-Badye’ regarding the apostrophe art.We support Radviāni’s definition based on transferring one meaning to another. It is consistent with the structure of the Persian language, and Tarjomān al-Balāghe has innovated this definition.A comparative and intertextual study of the Tarjomān art in prominent Persian rhetoric books shows that rhetorical schools have called this art “Tarjomān”, and lexically have mentioned meanings such as “looking back” and “re-looking” for it. In terms of terminology, Tarjomān is defined as follows:a) The point of view of speech from the absentee to the addressee and vice versa. All rhetorical scientists in the statistical community of the research except Shams Qais Razi have expressed this definition.b) Transferring from one meaning to another or using a proverb or a phrase of prayer or emphasis to clear up the ambiguity and concern of the listener. Radvināi, Vatvat, Shamse Gheyse Razi, Kashefi Sabzevari, and Ataolah Mahmood Hosseini have mentioned this definition.c) The definition related to returning from past or future to imperative or predictive to the future tense with the past meaning or vice versa is only proposed by Ataullah Mahmoud Hossini in Badaye’ al-Saneyi.It is said that what is acceptable in the definition of the Apostrophe  is transferring from one meaning to the other, which is proposed by the first book of Persian rhetoric, Tarjomān al-Balāghe