مجله پژوهش های برنامه درسی
سال سیزدهم شماره 1 (پیاپی 25، بهار و تابستان 1402)

Education is a fundamental human right and is at the center of human potential development. Despite the necessity for all individuals, especially children, to have equal access to quality education, many children in various parts of the world, including Iran, are deprived of equal educational opportunities due to factors such as poverty, gender, parental income, living in deprived and remote areas, lack of schools, and shortage of teachers. Therefore, in order to address the crisis related to the development of inclusive education and remove the financial barriers in deprived and sparsely populated rural areas, developing multi-grade schools has been put on the agenda of educational policymakers in many countries.
Given the widespread use of multi-grade classes as a tool for education in remote and deprived areas, and the critical role of multi-grade teachers as the mainstay of various educational programs in improving the quality of such schools, multi-grade teachers’ professional development is essential. Professional development is the key to the progress and professional growth of teachers, and the success of educational sectors in educating students is significantly affected by teachers’ access to and participation in high-quality professional development programs.

Research Question

What are the key elements of a model developed for multi-grade teachers’ professional development?

In this research, grounded theory, as a qualitative research approach aimed at uncovering the meanings of people’s social actions, interactions, and experiences, was used as the study method. Therefore, the study participants’ perceptions about the process, content, strategies, context, and consequences of participation in multi-grade teachers’ professional development programs and the relationships between them were investigated. The purposive (criterion-based) sampling technique was used to select 20 participants, including three administrative experts, six educational leaders, and 11 multigrade teachers. The inclusion criteria included at least 25 years of teaching experience in multi-grade classes. These individuals had extensive experience in teaching multi-grade classes and were highly knowledgeable about the research topic. A semi-structured interview was used to collect data and record participants’ experiences and perspectives. In the process of data collection, assumptions, concepts, and themes were accumulated step by step. Data collection continued until theoretical saturation was reached. Open, axial, and selective coding was used to analyze the data. The quality or validity of the research was ensured using long-term involvement and continuous observation methods (interviews with individuals with 25 years of work experience in multi-grade schools), member checking (the transcription of interviews was made available to participants for their approval), and methodological triangulation (using various data collection methods such as library studies, specialized sources and texts, as well as semi-structured interviews).

Through a three-stage data analysis process, 371 open codes, 25 axial codes, and six selective codes were obtained in the form of a paradigm model with six dimensions, including “causal factors” (two categories: multi-grade teachers’ professional development programs and lack of financial resources), “multi-grade teachers’ professional development” (five categories: educational competence, psychological competence, managerial competence, ethical competence, and social competence), “strategies” (five categories: policy making and legislation of multi-grade teachers’ protection laws, empowerment and knowledge enhancement programs for multi-grade teachers, development of suitable and accessible educational content, increased budget and provision of welfare, and hardware and software support for multi-grade schools), “contextual conditions” (five categories: cultural dimension, social dimension, economic dimension, historical dimension, and political dimension), “environmental conditions” (five categories: teachers’ inadequate content knowledge, lack of necessary organizational support, rural deprivation, problems rooted in the backwardness of deprived areas, and structural factors), and “consequences” (three categories: effects of professional development on teachers, effects of teachers’ professional development on students, and effects of teachers’ professional development on society ). The integration of codes based on the existing relationships between them around the axis of multi-grade teachers’ professional development led to the formation of the paradigm model that reflected multi-grade teachers’ professional development.

Providing equal educational opportunities for children in deprived areas will lead to the cultivation of students’ potential talents and their empowerment, promotion of a promising prospect, and increased self-efficacy and self-confidence, which in turn will result in the growth and development of deprived regions. The success of children is significantly influenced by access to qualified teachers in various educational, psychological, managerial, ethical, social, and cultural contexts. In this regard, multigrade teachers are identified as the central nucleus of change who have the power and potential to create desirable changes at individual and collective levels. Their actions and practices are influenced by the abovementioned factors. However, the lack of comprehensive, forward-looking, and specialized policies concerning multi-grade teachers’ professional development dashes the hope of achieving the desired goal of educational justice in deprived regions. The lack of a clear vision and the adoption of short-term, superficial, and temporary policies and solutions are the major factors inhibiting multi-grade teachers’ professional development. Multi-grade teachers are the center of cultural-educational gravity in deprived areas, and educational planning and policymaking should focus on their professional growth and development.

Today, the concept of probability is not only used in different fields of science and daily life but also included in the school curricula of various countries, including Iran. However, teaching and learning the concept of probability is fraught with challenges, of which some are unique to probability itself such as the multifaceted nature of probability, which lends itself to different interpretations and meanings. Currently, the three basic interpretations of probability included in the school mathematics curriculum are classical, frequentist, and subjective interpretations. Despite the continued attention paid to different interpretations of probability in different studies worldwide, few studies have focused on this issue within the context of Iranian school curriculum. Therefore, considering the importance of textbooks in the Iranian centralized education system and the need to deal with different interpretations of probability in these books, this research aimed to analyze national mathematics textbooks taught in junior high schools in Iran based on classical, frequentist, and subjective interpretations of probability. The results are hoped to shed light on how much attention is given to each of the three aforementioned approaches in the mentioned textbooks.

Research Questions:

The research questions were as follows:1- How and to what extent is each of the classical, frequentist, and subjective interpretations of probability addressed in the seventh-grade high school math textbook?
2- How and to what extent is each of the classical, frequentist, and subjective interpretations of probability addressed in the eighth-grade high school math textbook?
3- How and to what extent is each of the classical, frequentist, and subjective interpretations of probability addressed in the ninth-grade high school math textbook?
4- How and to what extent do the mathematics textbooks designed to be taught in Iranian junior high schools deal with each of the classical, frequentist, and subjective interpretations of probability as well as the interaction between them?

This applied research utilized a quantitative approach. The data were analyzed through content analysis. The statistical population included seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-grade math textbooks (2021 edition), and the sample was selected purposefully and proportionately to the statistical population. A researcher-developed rubric was used to analyze the content of selected textbooks regarding the three interpretations of probability. The content and face validity of the research tool were confirmed by the authors of mathematics textbooks and several university faculty members in the fields of mathematics, statistics, and curriculum planning. To ensure the reliability of coding, the degree of agreement between the coders was assessed, and the results showed high a level of intercoder agreement.

The findings showed that 76% of the tasks in the probability section of mathematics textbooks taught in junior high schools were designed according to the classical interpretation, and the other two interpretations accounted for only 24% of the tasks, of which only 5% were related to the frequentist interpretation. This scant attention paid to the frequentist interpretation does not seem to be sufficient compared to the dominant presence of classical interpretation used in mathematical tasks. Additional analysis of the data showed that in the three above-mentioned books, only one task was designed with the aim of communicating the definition of probability.
Based on the findings, it was found that more than three-quarters of the tasks pertinent to the concept of probability in junior high school mathematics textbooks were designed according to the classical interpretation. The other two interpretations, namely, frequentist and subjective, were utilized in less than a quarter of all tasks. These results are in line with those reported by Gandhi (2022) in India and Martin et al. (2022) in Canada.

In explaining the results of this study, it can be said that no reliable scientific research has been done in Iran to introduce and examine different approaches and interpretations of probability and the relationship between them. Therefore, it can be concluded that the lack of in-depth research is one of the main reasons that has caused the imbalance in the presentation of different interpretations of probability in Iranian mathematics textbooks in junior high schools. Another main reason that can be cited for the above results is that content standards related to mathematical concepts, including probability, are not met in Iran. Accordingly, it is suggested that the authors of mathematics textbooks in Iran introduce all three interpretations of probability to students and ensure that all these three interpretations are reflected equally in tasks. Moreover, mathematics textbook writers are recommended to explain not only the importance and application of these approaches to probability but also how they are connected with each other. This is a crucial point because when students reach the next stages of their academic lives, i.e., senior high schools and university, the importance and application of frequentist and subjective interpretations increase in some cases. Finally, due to the fact that only few studies have been conducted on the concept of probability in Iran, it is suggested that more studies focus on how different approaches to and practical uses of probability can be included in high school mathematics textbooks.

Globalization as a main paradigm in the present era has changed all aspects of human life. Globalization refers to a process the goal of which is to integrate the people of the world into a single society, which necessitates the fading away of political, economic, cultural, and other boundaries. Many researchers have summarized the main characteristics of globalization in concepts such as the emergence of the global electronic village, the information revolution, the compression of time and space, the global expansion of consciousness, the disappearance of geographical boundaries, and the emergence of the cybernetic age. Globalization has also presented numerous challenges. Since globalization is aimed at changing political, economic, and social structures at the local level and exposing their limitations, some think that the integration resulting from globalization threatens the existence of subcultures. To deal with this threat called globalization and revive and preserve the culture and values of their society, some have resorted to “indigenization” in various fields including curriculum development. In dealing with the phenomenon of globalization, some countries and educational systems have adopted the position that globalization and localization are mutually exclusive, thus adhering strictly to either of these two approaches and ignoring the other in their educational policy and planning. This presents a significant challenge to educational systems in many countries, including Iran. The issue of welcoming globalization while remaining local poses a serious paradox to all individuals and education systems. A paradox does not represent a dead end for thought. That is, a thoughtful person who faces an intellectual conflict feels committed to confronting it as a challenge and looks for any possible opportunities arising from it. Therefore, instead of rejecting a challenge and, as a result, refusing to deal with it, one should learn to elevate thinking and promote collective thinking to set the agenda to manage a situation effectively. In this regard, Roland Robertson’s ‘glocalization theory’ is one of the theories that effectively empolys integrated and collective thinking to deal with both the global issue (globalization) and the local issue (localization). As a result, it can be considered as an optimal sociological basis that can be used in curriculum planning. Therefore, the current research aimed to analyze the characteristics of the ‘glocal curriculum’ model of social studies based on Robertson’s theory using Akker’s model.

The current research adopted a qualitative approach and was applied in terms of purpose. Data included all published and available texts, documents, and reliable sources related to Roland Robertson’s theory from 1968 to 2022. The sources were selected through purposeful sampling and the Cochrane systematic review. Inductive content analysis (open and central coding) was used to analyze the data, which led to the identification of 71 conceptual propositions extracted from the selected authentic documents related to Robertson’s theory. The practical implications of the identified conceptual propositions for the ‘glocal curriculum’ of social studies were examined, and 51 conceptual propositions were deduced. Then, Akker’s ten-component model was utilized to identify the features of the ‘glocal curriculum’ of social studies. Finally, the credibility of the data was determined through the peer-review data collection and analysis processes. Furthermore, the dependability of data was determined through the audit trail.

Based on the findings of this study, the goals of the ‘glocal curriculum’ include familiarization with the basic and important concepts of ‘globalization’ and indiginization, paying attention to ‘diversity and pluralism’, and cultivating creative and critical thinking skills. The content of the curriculum should be flexible and appropriate to the context where it is going to be implemented. In addition, active teaching approaches should be promoted in a glocal curriculum. The teacher has to play the role of a guide and a facilitator and is encouraged to tap into various teaching resources. Finally, the time and place should be flexible, the activities should be done in groups and in collaboration with others, and various qualitative evaluation methods have to be used to assess students’ performance.

A critical reading of Robertson’s globalization theory using Akker’s model led to the identification of the features of a glocal curriculum model of social studies. It is suggested that the curriculum of social studies in primary and secondary courses be evaluated using the glocal curriculum developed in the present study.

Today, inclusive education has become a global movement at the national and international levels. Inclusive education is an approach that allows disabled students (with special needs) to benefit from a joint learning experience with their non-disabled peers in general education classes. Education experts acknowledge that the educational system, in its current condition, cannot meet the educational, psychological, and social needs of students with special needs. In the meantime, most of the issues related to this transformational inclusive approach are devoted to the adaptation of the educational environment, which needs to be reviewed and evaluated. A considerable time has passed since the formulation of the pilot plan for inclusive education and the promotion of the model school in exceptional education in Iran. As a result of these two developments, the Iranian education system has faced new opportunities and challenges. It, thus, is vitally essential to examine the quality of the educational environment of inclusive schools based on the model school. The present study was conducted with the aim of evaluating the pedagogical quality of space and educational services in the inclusive curriculum of exceptional education in Iran based on the standards of the model school. Research questions The following three research questions guided this study: 1. What is the quality of securing the space, adapting the physical environment, and facilitating the access of inclusive schools based on each of the five investigated provinces? 2. How is the quality of securing the space, adapting the physical environment, and facilitating access to inclusive schools within the elementary schools and junior and senior high schools? 3. How is the quality of securing the space, adapting the physical environment, and facilitating access to inclusive schools in inclusive schools from the perspective of the main stakeholders (i.e., principals of inclusive schools and supporting schools and parents of students with special needs in the inclusive education plan)?

This study utilized a mixed-methods design. The statistical population included all inclusive schools, supportive and inclusive principals, and inclusive parents in all three stages of schooling, namely, elementary, junior high school, and senior high school, in Iran. Multi-stage cluster sampling method was used to select five provinces in Iran, including Khuzestan, Kerman, Tehran, East Azarbaijan, and Khorasan Razavi. Then, the capital of each province and four cities from that province were selected for data collection. The sample included 75 inclusive schools from the five representative provinces. An observation list was used to check and evaluate the quality of space and educational services. This observation form was compiled based on the standards mentioned in the approved content of the Model School (2018) developed by the Exceptional Education Organization in Iran and included 170 items with 17 components (entrance and exit,14 items), stairs (19 items), ramp (9 items), corridors (14 items), classrooms (22 items), doors (11 items), windows (5 items), yard (6 items), drinking taps in the yard (8 items), restrooms (14 items), library (5 items), sports halls (4 items), elevator (13 items), ventilation system (3 items), safety equipment (4 items), special supplies for students with special needs (5 items), and light (4 items). The validity and reliability of this list were confirmed. In addition to the mentioned list, a semi-structured interview was used to examine the opinions of inclusive and supportive school principals as well as inclusive parents. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and t-test with the help of SPSS (version 21). Furthermore, the analysis of interviews was conducted using Strauss and Corbin’s (2008) systematic method. The interviews were transcribed, analyzed, conceptualized, and categorized.

The results showed that, in general, the condition of the physical input of schools in all investigated provinces was far from desirable. Also, except for “light” and “safety equipment” that were found to be in a satisfactory condition in all three stages of schooling (i.e., elementary schools, junior high schools, and senior high schools), the situation in other components associated with the ‘Model School’ was unfavorable. However, the analysis of the data obtained from the interviews indicated that the quality of securing the space, adapting the physical environment, and facilitating access to inclusive schools was in a favorable condition.

The findings showed that the status of ordinary schools to offer education to students with special needs did not meet the standards set for the ‘Model School’. More specifically, in some provinces, such as Khuzestan, there was a huge gap between expectations and reality. In other provinces, out of 17 components, only some components in normal schools were at the optimal level. The results highlight the need to equip, secure, and develop normal schools according to the ‘Model School’ standards.

Nowadays, it is an institutionalized view that universities and higher education centers can improve their teaching and learning approaches through the curriculum. Recent studies have shown that many universities are adapting curricula and educational approaches to Industry 4.0. The current study aimed to identify the digital skills required to be included in engineering students’ curriculum and provide mechanisms to adapt engineering students’ competencies to Industry 4.0. This study utilized Sandelowski and Barroso’s (2006) six-step meta-synthesis. By searching reliable databases, 61 studies were selected, analyzed, and coded. The findings revealed that the skills required by engineering students in the curriculum included the following: 1. technological and digital skills, 2. engineering skills, and 3. basic skills. Furthermore, the analysis of data resulted in the identification of 21 mechanisms. Five of these mechanisms are as follows: 1. curriculum design following the requirements of Industry 4.0, 2. the use and practical application of digital technologies in the curricula of higher education institutions, 3. developing a convergent curriculum based on new technologies and fundamental changes in the structure of education, course content, and teaching, 4. lab-based and practical education in engineering education curricula, and 5. education of engineerring students based on a technological platform to develop digital skills in them to meet the demands of Industry 4.0. Finally, some operational guidelines are provided on how to update university curricula.

The purpose of this qualitative case study research was to design a framework for the civic literacy curriculum of the social studies textbook of the sixth-grade elementary school in the Islamic Republic of Iran.

The study participants included three groups as follows: 30 provincial teachers from the Fars General Directorate of Education, 9 faculty members of sociology from Shiraz University, and 27 participants from the heads of social studies groups of the first secondary school from the Fars General Directorate of Education. The participants were selected through typical case sampling. Data was collected via semi-structured interviews, and it continued until data saturation was reached. The obtained data were analyzed using thematic analysis.

A framework was designed for the civic literacy curriculum for the sixth-grade social studies textbook. The framework comprised 10 categories and sub-categories under the following headings: logic and why, objectives, content, learning resources, learning activities, role of teacher, grouping of learners, time of teaching, place of education, and evaluation.

The findings of this research showed that the acquisition of civic literacy could lead to the active participation of students in various civic affairs. Moreover, civic literacy was found to enhance human development and reduce cultural poverty in society. The development and cultivation of civic literacy of students in schools will have individual and collective benefits for the society. The formation of students’ civic literacy is an effective means to socialize students as future citizens, which requires the attention of planners and politicians to this educational strategy. Based on the results of this study, educational planners and textbook writers are encouraged to employ the framework developed in this study to develop and design a chapter for the sixth-grade social studies book.

The most important period in all education systems in the world is the primary level, so studying different dimensions in this stage of education, especially the teaching method, is of great importance. An effective teaching method can facilitate deep learning, which can be achieved by a continuous and close review of teaching methods. ‘Experimental sciences’ is one of the subjects taught in Iran in primary school; thus, what teaching method(s) should be used to teach this course effectively deserves attention. In an attempt to deal with the factors causing students’ poor performance in ‘experimental sciences’, researchers have suggested that teaching methods that are based on students’ deep learning can be the solution. In addition, they believe that deep-learning-based curricula can influence students’ views on how to learn experimental sciences by promoting creativity and critical thinking. Therefore, considering the centrality of deep learning in Michael Fullan’s approach and the emphasis of many researchers in the field of experimental sciences education on deep learning, the present study was designed to, first, identify the curriculum components related to goals, content, teaching-learning strategies, evaluation, grouping, required resources and facilities, time, and place with the main goal of promoting deep learning in the form of the four levels introduced by Fullan. To this end, the challenges and needs associated with the teaching methods of ‘experimental sciences’ were determined by reviewing the existing literature. In this study, for the first time, a method of teaching ‘experimental sciences’ in primary school was developed based on Fullan’s approach. Afterward, the validity of the developed teaching method and its effectiveness on students’ critical thinking and creativity were investigated

Research questions:

The present study was aimed at answering the following questions:1- Is the teaching method developed based on Fullan’s for teaching ‘experimental sciences’ in primary school theory effective in improving students’ critical thinking?
2- Is the teaching method developed based on Fullan’s theory for teaching ‘experimental sciences’ in primary school effective in improving students’ creativity?

The present study utilized a semi-experimental design with a pre-test, post-test control group. The statistical population of the study included all male primary students in Isfahan, Iran, in the academic year 2014-2016. First, a male school from one of the six education districts in Isfahan was selected using convenient sampling. This limited sampling was done to control the social and cultural characteristics of students, school conditions, and non-participation in ‘experimental sciences’ deep reinforcement learning. Then, consent was obtained from the school principal, and the objectives of the research were fully explained to him. Finally, two third-grade primary classes, each with 25 students, were selected randomly as the study sample. Of these two classes, one class was randomly selected as the experimental group and the other as the control group. The students were asked to complete the Critical Thinking Questionnaire (CTQ) and the Torrance Tests of Creativity Thinking (TTCT). Then, the experimental group was taught ‘experimental sciences’ based on Fullan’s approach for four months (half of the academic year) while the control group received conventional education. It should be mentioned that it was the first time that a teaching method was developed for primary ‘experimental sciences’ based on Fullan’s theory. The new teaching method was developed to address the deficiencies and shortcomings of the existing teaching methods. Before applying the newly developed teaching method, the teacher in charge of the classes was fully instructed and guided on how to use the aforesaid method. The components of the developed teaching method were identified with the cooperation of the teacher, who was encouraged to apply all the aspects of the developed method in his/her teaching. Finally, after the method was used to teach the students in the experimental group for half of an academic year, the post-examination was given to students. Data analysis was done by ANOVA using SPSS software.

The results of a comparison of pre-test and post-test scores for both groups revealed that the effect of teaching ‘experimental sciences’ based on Fullan’s approach to critical thinking and creativity was significant and that the newly developed teaching method improved the critical thinking and creativity of students in the experimental group. The correlation coefficients showed that the 35.1% and 22.7% differences in critical thinking and creativity, respectively, between the control group and experimental group were caused by the new teaching method of primary ‘experimental sciences’ developed based on Fullan’s theory.

Therefore, it can be stated that a teaching method developed based on Fullan’s approach can be effective in teaching ‘experimental sciences’ in primary school.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the current model of ‘Nishat (vibrant) curriculum’ in primary school. This qualitative study used the grounded theory approach. The statistical participants of the study included all the agents involved in the development of Nishat curriculum for primary education. Purposeful criterion sampling was used to select participants. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with 14 teachers, five school administrators, and eight parents of students. In order to analyze the data, open, axial, and selective coding was used. The criteria proposed by Lincoln and Guba (1985) were used to assess transferability and dependability. The results led to the identification of 21 core concepts and eight categories, which were put together in the form of a paradigm model. The model included the neglect of vitality in school curricula as the core category. It also comprised causal conditions (weakness in school management, weakness in educational culture schools, weakness in students’ social relations), contextual factors (sociocultural factors, organizational factors, and educational factors), facilitating conditions (personality and individual factors, content attractiveness of textbooks, attention to individual differences, and qualitative evaluation), intervening conditions (individual challenges, cultural challenges, and school challenges), strategies (interactions and communication among students, creation of a friendly classroom atmosphere by teachers, attention to active teaching methods, dynamization of the physical space), and consequences (increased depression and academic frustration). Therefore, it can be concluded that it is necessary for all education stakeholders to pay attention to sociocultural, organizational, and educational factors in the integration of Nishat (vitality) into the curriculum.

The emergence of various environmental crises has created many problems for governments across the world. This has forced governments to recognize the factors causing environmental degradation and pollution and take steps to create programs for environmental protection (Akadiri et al., 2012). The initiatives and plans developed by governments and organizations to ensure long-term environmental sustainability are necessary to preserve and maintain nature (Scheiner & Willig, 2011). Meanwhile, educational institutions should plan in line with other organizations to protect the environment (Dibai & Lahijanian, 2008). One of the most important educational institutions in any country is school, which, in addition to the task of education, can play an important role in enhancing students’ environmental awareness (Hosseinpour et al., 2018). Schools are the most basic educational context for developing a sense of environmental responsibility in students (Parieshani et al., 2018). The success of any environmental education depends on whether individuals and institutions take responsibility for creating for the environment and change their daily actions to reduce environmental pollution (Barr, 2003). Currently, one of the most important topics that require further research is what different institutions and organizations should do to protect the environment. This research sought to identify the environmental challenges facing schools and provide some suggestions to address those challenges.

1- What measures have school principals implemented to promote environmental education and protect the environment?
2- Based on school principals’ experiences, what are the challenges facing schools in promoting environmental protection?

The current research was conducted using descriptive phenomenology, which is a qualitative research approach. The context of the current study was Sanandaj (Kurdistan province, Iran) and its educational Districts 1 and 2. The participants were principals of girls’ and boys’ primary schools in the academic year 2021-2022. The participants were selected using purposeful sampling. Among the schools in Sanandaj, 16 schools were active in the field of environment and had carried out some environmental initiatives. Semi-structured interviews, which included 8 general and open questions about the research topic, were used to collect qualitative data. In this regard, one of the researchers went to each school and conducted face- to-face, semi-structured interviews with the principals. Finally, collected data from these interviews were analyzed using Attride Sterling’s three-step thematic analysis method.

According to the results, schools could be classified into six categories based on the strategies they followed to support the environment. These six groups of schools focused on the following aspects of the environment: 1) enhancing students’ environmental awareness, 2) improving students’ environmental behavior, 3) promoting a sense of affinity between families and the local community with nature, 4) creating environmental-friendly contexts and equipment to optimize school management and minimize school expenses. , 5) promoting students to the representatives of well-being in the family and society, and 6) reducing the consumption of natural resources. More specifically, the third category of schools, for example, tried to bring families and the local community together and succeeded in heightening their environmental awareness (López et al., 2021). The fourth category of schools was focused on improving the context and physical conditions of schools by using optimal equipment, which, in turn, can be effective in instilling environmental responsibilities and values in students (Akbari Armand et al., 2020).
Organizational limitations in the education system were the primary obstacles raised by school principals (Soleimani et al., 2019). According to participant principals, educational limitations were the second group of challenges to environmental strategies facing primary schools in Sanandaj (Gündüz & Erdoğuş, 2017). The third group of obstacles concerned the community’s limited environmental awareness, which refers to the lack of awareness and cooperation by families and the media. It also refers to the lack of parents’ trust in schools in terms of safety and health, which is rooted in reductionist beliefs considering schools as closed classes limited to teaching of students by teachers (Soleimani et al., 2019). The lack of facilities and allocation of a limited budget for environmental activities formed the fourth group of challenges (Salaran et al., 2013). Structural and physical limitations were referred to by principals as the fifth group of obstacles undermining environmental activities in Sanandaj primary schools. School principals pointed out that neither school buildings nor their physical spaces were appropriate for promoting environmental activities in schools (Soleimani et al., 2019).

According to the results of this research, schools, as one of the key pillars of education in any country, can take measures to reduce energy consumption, enhance students’ environmental awareness, and promote a sense of friendship between families and society, on the one hand, and nature, on the other hand. In addition, schools can aim for green architecture and design, cooperate with environmental organizations, play a role in both creating green spaces in the city and cleaning public places, use different technologies for communication and exams, and change their consumption pattern. Other strategies that can be followed by schools to protect the environment include avoiding excess waste, reducing costs, and improving efficiency. In this regard, schools are recommended to utilize optimal equipment and smart sensors and create green spaces with local trees and plants that need little watering. These simple but effective measures will not only add to the beauty and cleanliness of schools but also help schools save energy and reduce their costs. The abovementioned measures and strategies, if implemented by schools, will turn schools into beautiful places that can provide job satisfaction for teachers and peaceful education for students.

Today, some experts in the field of science education, such as experimental sciences and mathematics, believe that curriculum innovation is the core of sustainable development in societies in the 21st century. . . Therefore, to achieve sustainable development in this century, it is necessary to develop individuals who can use experimental and non-experimental sciences. According to the changing needs of people in the new century, optimal use of knowledge has become more important than ever before. Accordingly, it is necessary to connect children’s learning in schools with their daily lives so that students can solve the problems they face in their daily lives. Teaching ‘experimental sciences’ with the aim of transferring theoretical knowledge to everyday living conditions is of great significance among educational planners. However, research has shown that students do not usually know what the relevance of scientific concepts learned during primary school is to their daily lives cannot; in other words, they cannot relate the learned concepts to their everyday life events. This situation reduces students’ interest in learning science and negatively affects their academic performance. In recent years, many countries have adopted a context-based approach, which is based on their unique social structure, to develop an ‘experimental sciences’ curriculum at all levels of education. A context-oriented approach is one of the innovative approaches to curriculum development used in many countries such as the Netherlands, the United States, Germany, England, Canada, and Australia. This approach links the teaching, learning, and content of ‘experimental sciences’ to students’ daily lives and aims to bridge the gap between difficult abstract concepts and the world where students live. Therefore, the national curriculum should focus on increasing learners’ interest in experimental sciences, linking what is learned with the real lives of students, linking learning with actual applications (meaningful learning), helping students to gain competence in learning, and nurturing thoughtful and creative learning in textbooks. This study, following a close examination of the present ‘experimental sciences’ curriculum, aimed to present a context-based model of teaching ‘experimental sciences’ in primary school using grounded theory.

This study used a qualitative approach based on Strauss and Corbin’s (1990) reformulated grounded theory. Grounded theory, which is based on a set of empirical relevant data, is a method used to gain knowledge about a subject that has not been thoroughly researched before and for which the existing knowledge is limited. In implementing the grounded theory, the researcher must use a specific technique, called phased coding (open, axial, and selective), to analyze data. The statistical population of this study included all primary teachers in Markazi province, of which 25 were selected through purposeful sampling as the study sample. Sampling continued until theoretical saturation was reached. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews with the 25 participant primary teachers, who had sufficient experience to provide researchers with expert opinions pertinent to the research topic.
Four criteria introduced by Lincoln and Guba (1985) were used to ensure the trustworthiness of the findings. These included credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. Member-checking, or participant validation, was used to ensure credibility. The findings were shared with experts to make them transferable. Concerning dependability, the inter-coder agreement was used. Finally, peer review and feedback were used to enhance the confirmability of the results.

The findings encompassed 43 open codes, 52 axial codes, and 15 selective codes. The sub-categories that followed causal conditions included factors related to students, curriculum planning, and teachers. The contextual conditions comprised teaching-learning factors, organizational factors, space, resources and materials, and teachers’ skills. The categories that were placed under the dimension of intervening factors were as follows: organizational and managerial factors, cultural factors, teachers’ factors, and physical factors. The category subsumed under the dimension of strategy dimension was educational planning, which itself included physical facilities, goals, content, evaluation, teacher training, and teaching method. The consequences comprised the effectiveness of teachers (professional growth of teachers) and the effectiveness of students (in terms of skills, attitudes, cognition, and acquisition of science process skills).

The present study sought to present a context-based model of education, in particular ‘experimental sciences’ teaching, in primary school. The developed model included a set of skills, and its success depends on the development of those skills. Therefore, in designing and promoting a context-based model of teaching ‘experimental sciences’, all factors and conditions, including micro and macro, should be considered. Some of these factors include cultural, organizational, social, economic, and technological factors that are related to curriculum, students, teachers, and education. Once all these factors are integrated to function in a dynamic system, the proposed model will have positive consequences for teachers, students, and the educational system of Markazi province, in particular, and Iran, in general.

The aim of this study was to identify the components of media literacy education for student teachers based on Roberts’s six-step synthesis research method. The statistical population of this research included all articles in prestigious domestic and foreign journals, book chapters, theses and dissertations, and other related documents published in the last 20 years. For this purpose, all databases in the field of media literacy were systematically searched. Based on the inclusion criteria, 466 studies were identified. Finally, when the studies were weighed against the exclusion criteria, 74 studies were selected as the study sample. To collect and record the information related to primary studies, a checklist designed by the researchers was used. The checklist was developed using the theoretical foundations of a study related to the research topic. The data were analyzed using Roberts’s (1983) six-step synthesis method as well as open and axial coding. Two researchers coded the data, and Cohen’s kappa coefficient was used to determine inter-coder agreement, which was calculated to be 0.76. The analysis resulted in the identification of 16 categories and 56 themes. Moreover, based on the research findings, the dimensions and components of student teachers’s media literacy were divided into five core concepts, including purpose, content, audience, identity, and format. Purpose, the first core concept, included critical thinking and socialization. Content comprised cognitive-perceptual, emotional, moral, and aesthetic factors. Audience, the third core concept, consisted of specific, active, and passive audience. The fourth core concept, namely, identity, included ownership and control, law, technology, and economics. The final core concept, format, refers to written, electronic, and digital formats.

One of the controversial topics concerning Iranian teachers and schools in the 21st century has been the “death of school and teacher”! This idea, which is based on real and available evidence, has drawn the attention of researchers from different disciplines. It is grounded on the results of Iranian pupils’ performance in national and international exams. In this regard, pupils’ performance on school exams and university entrance exams as well as their performance on international tests such as TIMSS and PIRLS have been referred to and cited as the main pieces of evidence supporting the abovementioned hypothesis. In addition, researchers refer to their first-hand experiences and research findings to lend further evidence to the above hypothesis. Even if the evidence presented by the exponents of the hypothesis is accepted, this type of thinking and theorization can still be called a misconception of evidence or bad theorization. To clarify the point, one should take into consideration that what shapes pupils’ performance is not just learning. What matters more than learning and knowing is individuals’ willingness to learn and acquire knowledge, which depends on several social and cultural factors. Whether pupils are willing to tap into their ability in test situations requires further attention and research. However, it is undeniably true that Iranian pupils are neither pleased with nor interested in what is going on inour schools. Ironically, the same pupils have demonstrated in similar situations that they have the necessary ability to get things done.