نشریه مطالعات آموزش و یادگیری
سال پانزدهم شماره 2 (پیاپی 85، پاییز و زمستان 1402)

Students often encounter motivational challenges while engaging in academic activities. They may perceive these tasks as irrelevant, monotonous, or difficult. For instance, assignments may be seen as uninteresting or challenging. A substantial body of empirical evidence supports the notion that a learner’s ability to respond productively and efficiently to such demanding experiences significantly influences their learning progress. The proactive efforts of learners to maintain or enhance their motivation in the face of stressful academic events, a critical element of the self-regulation process, indicate their capacity for motivational regulation. Consequently, learners may strive to sustain and augment their motivation by employing mechanisms such as self-rewarding or altering their environment. An extensive and growing body of evidence suggests that a student’s ability to respond productively and persist in the face of these challenges can profoundly impact their learning and achievement. Given the explanatory role of motivational regulation in shaping various aspects of students’ academic activity, numerous educational researchers have endeavored to develop diverse measurement tools for this motivational construct. For instance, Wolters (1999a, 1999b) initially developed a self-report version of the motivational self-regulation measurement tool, which included five motivational self-regulation strategies. Subsequently, Wolters and Benzon (2013) developed a 30-item version of the motivational regulation measurement instrument, encompassing six subscales of value regulation, performance goal regulation, self-consequating, environmental structuring, and situational interest regulation. Similarly, Gonzalez et al. (2006) created a 35-item scale assessing seven motivational regulation strategies, akin to the dimensions proposed by Wolters (2003). Given their shared origin, the existing instruments possess three features that limit their utility for certain purposes. Firstly, the instruments are lengthy, each comprising 30 to 35 items (e.g., Schwinger et al., 2007; Wolters & Benzon, 2013). Secondly, each instrument was designed to yield multiple indicators of students’ reported usage of specific types of strategies for motivational regulation. A third characteristic that restricts the utility of existing instruments is the manner in which these instruments contextualize students’ responses. Consequently, the researchers in this study, after ensuring the absence of a Persian version of the motivational regulation scale and recognizing the explanatory power of the concept of motivational regulation in defining learners’ academic activity in academic progress situations, examined the technical features of the validity and reliability of the Persian version of the scale.

In this correlational study, 300 students (140 men and 160 women) who were selected using the convenience sampling method, were answered the Achievement Goal Questionnaire-Revised, the Academic Self-Efficacy Questionnaire, the Academic Self-Handicapping Scale and the Brief Regulation of Motivation Scale. To confirm the factor structure of measurement scale, structural equation modelling using confirmatory factor analysis is utilized. Confirmatory factor analysis using maximum likelihood (ML) estimation was used to examine the hypothesis regarding number of factors, their loadings and factor inter correlations. The data were analyzed using SPSS-18 and AMOS-18.

Initially, the data were examined for normality, outliers, and multicollinearity. Univariate outliers were identified via Z-score values in SPSS (z = ±3.29, p < .001, two-tailed test) (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007), revealing no abnormal or out-of-range values. Skewness (≤ |.48|) and kurtosis (≤ |1.05|) results confirmed that none of the items exceeded the suggested cut-off points of |3.00| and |8.00|, respectively, indicating that the data are free from univariate non-normality (Kline, 2015). Furthermore, the data were screened for instances of multicollinearity via analysis of tolerance (TOL) and variance inflation factor (VIF). Multicollinearity was not present as all. TOL indices were >.10 and all VIF measures were < 3 (Hair et al., 2010). The results of the confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated that the two-factor model of the Brief Regulation of Motivation Scale, including motivational regulation and willpower, fit the data well. Criterion evidence for the scores of motivational regulation dimensions was demonstrated through significant correlations with self-efficacy beliefs, achievement goals, and academic self-handicapping. Cronbach’s alpha for the motivational regulation and willpower subscales was .85 and .82, respectively.

The findings of this research align with the study by Kim et al. (2018), which empirically supported the two-factor structure of the scale, including motivational regulation and willpower. In other words, the results related to the internal structure of the short version of the regulation of motivation scale provided fundamental evidence in defense of the validity of this instrument for measuring motivational regulation. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis supported the two-factor structure in the 12-item short version. The first factor, motivation regulation, refers to an individual’s desire to consciously and strategically maintain and enhance their motivation in the face of various motivational challenges. Eight items related to the first factor, motivation regulation, indicate the conceptual understanding of motivation regulation. In contrast, the other four items refer to the second factor, willpower. The items in the second factor focused on the feeling of individual compulsion to do things without using specific strategies. The results of the studies show that willpower is reported more by learners who did not think about motivational discipline strategies. In sum, the ability to regulate motivation is considered a fundamental aspect of successful self-regulated learning. Although different researchers have paid special attention to this structure and its functions, the focus on motivational regulation has been less compared to other forms of self-regulation such as cognitive and metacognitive regulation strategies. Undoubtedly, a compelling reason for such a paucity is related to the nature and length of instruments measuring regulation of motivation. Therefore, the short version of the regulation of motivation scale, with a holistic approach and sensitive to contextual factors (Kim et al., 2018), tests learners’ self-regulation tendencies when engaged in academic efforts. In summary, findings from this evaluation support the overall validity of using this new instrument for assessing university students’ regulation of motivation by providing evidence regarding its internal structure, its relations with conceptually related constructs, and its relations with important criteria.

In the realm of positive psychology, well-being serves as a cornerstone of positive performance, fostering personal growth and enhanced capabilities. Academic well-being, a state characterized by enthusiasm, energy, and a deep commitment to academic pursuits, plays a crucial role in shaping the educational experience. Numerous studies have explored the factors influencing academic well-being, with hope emerging as a compelling element. Snyder's theory of hope offers a comprehensive framework for understanding this concept. According to Snyder, academic hope encompasses the belief in one's ability to formulate effective strategies to achieve goals, the motivation to utilize these strategies, the capacity to sustain positive emotions, and the perseverance to persist in the face of challenges and complete academic endeavors. Students who possess academic hope tend to experience lower levels of distress and psychological stress, contributing significantly to their academic success. Beyond the direct impact of hope, it is crucial to elucidate the mechanisms through which it influences academic well-being. Snyder's theory (1995) suggests a close association between hope and self-regulation. Motivational self-regulation refers to the intentional adjustments individuals make to their motivation to engage in tasks, accomplish goals, or reach specific objectives. Comprehending the role of motivational self-regulation in the relationship between hope and academic well-being is essential for a comprehensive understanding of this complex phenomenon. Given the multifaceted nature of factors affecting academic well-being, a unidimensional and linear approach is insufficient to unveil the underlying processes. Instead, a deeper exploration that considers indirect relationships among variables is paramount. Investigating mediating factors, such as motivational self-regulation, provides valuable insights into the complex dynamics of academic well-being. Thus, the primary objective of this research is to examine the mediating role of motivational self-regulation in the relationship between academic hope and academic well-being. By examining this indirect pathway, we aim to gain a deeper understanding of the processes through which hope fosters academic well-being and contributes to overall academic success.

The present study employs a correlational research design to investigate the structural relationships between the variables using the method of structural equation modeling. The statistical population comprises all students from the first secondary school in Marvdasht who were enrolled in the 2020-2021 academic year. The sample size for this study was determined to be 393 individuals, selected via a random cluster sampling method. Consequently, out of the 13 first secondary schools in the city, 4 schools (comprising 2 girls' schools and 2 boys' schools) were randomly chosen, and a majority of the students from these 4 schools participated in the study. The sample size was determined based on Kline's (2016) recommendation, which suggests that the appropriate sample size for a structural equation modeling test should be 10 to 20 times the number of parameters in the research model. The inclusion criteria for the study were informed consent from the participants and enrollment in the specified academic year, while the exclusion criteria were a history of specific physical and mental illnesses (based on self-reporting by the subjects) and incomplete questionnaires. Ethical considerations in this study included informing the participants about the purpose of the research, ensuring their complete freedom to participate or not participate in the research, obtaining informed consent, and guaranteeing confidentiality. The participants' age range was between 13 and 15 years, with a mean and standard deviation of 13.45 and 0.97 years, respectively. The sample consisted of 205 female participants (52.16%) and 188 male participants (47.84%).

The research model demonstrated a good fit with the collected data, indicating that the proposed relationships between the variables were supported by the empirical evidence. Moreover, the direct effects of academic emotion of hope on both motivational self-regulation and academic well-being were significant, suggesting that higher levels of hope were associated with enhanced self-regulation and academic well-being. Similarly, the direct effect of motivational self-regulation on academic well-being was also significant, highlighting the role of self-regulation in promoting academic well-being. Notably, the effect of academic emotion of hope on academic well-being was significantly mediated by motivational self-regulation. This finding underscores the mediating role of motivational self-regulation, suggesting that hope indirectly influences academic well-being through its impact on self-regulation. In essence, the results indicate that motivational self-regulation serves as a crucial pathway through which academic emotion of hope contributes to enhanced academic well-being.

The objective of this study was to examine a causal model concerning the mediating role of motivational self-regulation in the relationship between the academic emotion of hope and academic well-being, utilizing structural equation modeling. The findings revealed that the academic emotion of hope had a direct and positive influence on academic well-being. This finding can be interpreted as the academic emotion of hope being related to learners' cognitive expectations of achieving desirable outcomes, such as securing favorable opportunities and life skills. Consequently, learners with high levels of hope set goals, identify the means to attain them, and generate the necessary motivation to achieve these goals. Additionally, the research found a positive and significant effect of the academic emotion of hope on motivational self-regulation. Other findings include the positive impact of motivational self-regulation on academic well-being, both directly and as a mediator. In summary, the results underscore the importance of the variables of academic excitement, hope, and motivational self-regulation in predicting academic well-being. Given that this research employed a correlational design, it is not possible to draw causal inferences from it. It is recommended that the model of this study be examined among students and learners from different cultural contexts to enhance the generalizability of the results.

Given the importance of enhancing and developing the educational aspects of students who bully others, which includes strengthening their well-being and academic enthusiasm, and considering the advancement of social dimensions and factors, the concept of social competence emerges as a crucial and foundational approach in educational interventions. Its role in mitigating bullying behaviors and reinforcing the well-being and academic enthusiasm of students who bully others forms the fundamental challenge of this research. This study seeks to answer whether training in social competence effectively impacts the bullying behaviors, well-being, and academic enthusiasm of students who bully others. There exists a significant gap in experimental research regarding the effectiveness of social competence on bullying behaviors, well-being, and academic enthusiasm of students who are bullied. The intervention and training of social competence for students who bully others could be seen as a promising strategy in improving the bullying behaviors, well-being, and academic enthusiasm of these students. Therefore, given the problem at hand, that bullying among students is a fundamental issue rooted in factors such as the prevalence of bullying behaviors, academic well-being, and academic enthusiasm, there is a need for social competence training in these areas. This study investigates the effectiveness of social competence education on bullying behaviors, well-being, and academic enthusiasm of students who bully others.

The current research was applied in nature and employed a semi-experimental methodology with pre-test and post-test, including a control group. The statistical population comprised male students from the academic year of 2022-2023, who were selected via a random one-stage cluster method from a first-year high school in the 2nd district of Urmia for the purpose of the study. A sample of 30 male students who had been bullied was screened using a standard scale and randomly divided into two groups of 15. The criteria for inclusion in the intervention were informed consent, having experienced being a victim, and not having other concurrent injuries and disorders. The criteria for exclusion were non-participation in all training sessions. Initially, bullying behaviors, well-being, and academic passion were assessed as a pre-test from the groups under study. Subsequently, ten sessions of Felner's (1990) social competence training were conducted for 60 minutes over a month for the experimental group, while the control group did not receive such training. After completing the training, the post-test scores were obtained using the same standard scales that were coded, and the identity of the respondent was kept anonymous. Descriptive statistics (mean index and standard deviation) and inferential statistics were used to analyze the research results. Inferential analysis was conducted considering that the intervention was carried out on one group with pre-test and post-test, and the study had more than one dependent variable. According to the research hypotheses, the multivariate analysis of covariance test in SPSS-20 was used to analyze the cases.

According to the findings obtained in this research, it can be stated that the research hypotheses are confirmed. Therefore, it can be concluded that bullying behaviors (bullying, conflict, and victimization), academic well-being (valuation, burnout, academic satisfaction, and academic participation), and academic conflict (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive) of students who bully others in the experimental group underwent a significant change under the influence of social skills intervention.

Based on the findings of the present study, social competence training demonstrated a significant effect on bullying behaviors, well-being, and academic involvement of male students with bullying tendencies. In other words, social competence training was successful in reducing bullying behaviors in students who bully others and enhancing their academic well-being and academic involvement.

Grit, a non-cognitive factor, plays an influential role in students’ academic achievement. It has two components: consistency of interest and perseverance of effort. Grit has been shown to be a stronger predictor of academic success among students compared to their exam scores and Grade Point Average (GPA), as it has a closer relationship with success criteria than intelligence (Duckworth et al., 2007). Therefore, investigating the factors contributing to students’ academic grit is essential. One important factor affecting students’ academic grit could be their implicit intelligence beliefs. These beliefs are key determinants of students’ emotional experiences in achievement situations and could affect their interpretations of their performance (Dweck & Molden, 2017). According to Dweck (2006), there are two major types of intelligence beliefs: entity and incremental. Individuals with entity beliefs think that they have a certain amount of innate talent and intelligence, which cannot be changed or improved. Conversely, those with incremental beliefs consider their skills and abilities as malleable and believe they can be improved through practice and effort (Sigmundsson, 2021). Incremental intelligence beliefs provide individuals with a framework for interpreting effort and practice. More specifically, individuals endorsing these beliefs value hard work and effort and consider failures and mistakes as opportunities for learning and growth, rather than signs of incompetence (Molden & Dweck, 2006). These individuals are not concerned about others' judgments and devote considerable time and effort to their learning processes. Earlier findings indicate a moderate relationship between intelligence beliefs and grit among students (Duckworth & Eskreis-Winkler, 2015). We hypothesize that enhancing incremental intelligence beliefs may result in increased effort among students, influencing their academic success (Kaya and Karakoc, 2022). Moreover, it is important to examine the underlying mechanism linking intelligence beliefs to academic grit. Identifying the mediating factors in this relationship could have theoretical implications and help design effective interventions for promoting students’ academic grit. Given previous research highlighting the role of motivation in grit (Karlen et al., 2019), we suggest that motivation could mediate the relationship between incremental beliefs and academic grit. This study examines the mediating role of students’ academic motivation in the association between their intelligence beliefs and academic grit.

This study employs a descriptive and correlational design. The sample comprised 380 undergraduate and postgraduate students from the University of Kashan, selected via multi-stage cluster sampling during the 2021-2022 academic year. Data were collected using Clark and Maleki’s (2019) Academic Grit Scale, Fattah and Yates’ (2006) Implicit Theories of Intelligence Scale, and Lepper’s (2005) Academic Motivation Scale. After the exclusion of incomplete questionnaires and outliers, the data from 360 students (257 females and 103 males) were subjected to Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) analysis using AMOS (Version 22) and SPSS (Version 22).

The results indicated a positive and significant relationship between incremental intelligence beliefs and academic grit, while no significant association was found between entity intelligence beliefs and academic grit. Incremental intelligence beliefs were significantly and positively associated with intrinsic motivation, but not with extrinsic motivation. Similarly, intrinsic motivation, but not extrinsic motivation, had a direct and significant association with academic grit. Consequently, entity beliefs about intelligence and intrinsic academic motivation were excluded from the structural model. The model fit indices suggested that the proposed model was adequately fitted (χ2/df = 1.83, GFI=.95, CFI=.97, TLI=.96, NFI=.94, RMSEA=.048). GFI, CFI, TLI, and NFI values greater than .90 and .95 are considered acceptable and very good, respectively. As for RMSEA, values below .08 are considered acceptable. The results indicated that incremental intelligence beliefs were positively and directly related to academic grit (β=.58, p<.01) and intrinsic academic motivation (β=.49, p<.01). Furthermore, intrinsic academic motivation was positively associated with academic grit (β=.39, p<.01). Additionally, incremental intelligence beliefs were indirectly related to academic grit through intrinsic academic motivation (β=.19, p<.01).

The findings demonstrated that students’ incremental intelligence beliefs could predict their academic grit, aligning with previous studies that underscored the role of intelligence beliefs in students’ academic grit (e.g., Frontini et al., 2021; Karlen et al., 2019; Kannangara et al., 2018; Kim, 2020; Park et al., 2020; Sigmundsson, 2021). Students who believe in the malleability and improvability of their intelligence exert more effort and show greater perseverance in achieving their goals, while those with entity beliefs, who view their competence and skills as unchangeable, do not persevere in achieving their goals (Sigmundsson, 2021). In essence, students who subscribe to incremental beliefs about their intelligence and skills are optimistic and hopeful, which motivates them to exert more effort and sustain their interest. Moreover, the findings revealed that intrinsic academic motivation could predict academic grit and mediate the relationship between incremental intelligence beliefs and academic grit. In other words, students who hold incremental beliefs about their intelligence have higher intrinsic motivation, which results in higher levels of academic grit. This finding is consistent with previous research indicating the link between intelligence beliefs and motivation (Betsy, 2018; Rhew et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2021) and the positive association between motivation and academic grit (Bagheri Sheykhangafshe et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2021; Gyamfi and Lai, 2020; Karlen et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2018). When students have incremental beliefs about their intelligence, they have a more positive and optimistic view of their talents and skills, which enhances their motivation and makes them exert more effort and show more interest in their studies. Zhao et al. (2018) found that students endorsing incremental intelligence beliefs are more inclined to have intrinsic motivation and show interest and perseverance in their learning. Given that this study is correlational, caution should be exercised in inferring cause-and-effect relationships. Moreover, care should be taken when generalizing the findings to other universities or educational levels (e.g., high school). Future research could adopt an experimental design to investigate the role of intelligence beliefs in academic grit and the possible underlying mechanisms. Additionally, further research could explore the relationships in the proposed model in different domains (e.g., mathematics) and cultural contexts.

In contemporary education systems, the cultivation of non-cognitive skills and competencies has been prioritized, and their development is perceived as one of the most significant outcomes of educational processes. These competencies equip students to excel in social, emotional, and behavioral domains. The formal education system of the Islamic Republic of Iran (henceforth referred to as IRI), an ideological system rooted in religion, underscores that the development of non-cognitive competencies is as crucial as achieving academic success. According to the Fundamental Reform Document of Education (FRDE) in the IRI, students are expected to cultivate seven dimensions (religious, spiritual, physical, economic, affective, and aesthetic), and they are guided to enhance their relationships with themselves, God, others, and all creations. In alignment with these seven dimensions, the Upstream Documents are replete with educational objectives that extend beyond the realms of academic or cognitive categories. The attributes delineated in the Upstream Documents bear resemblance to those highlighted in Social Emotional Learning (SEL) (i.e., social-emotional and 21st-century skills/competencies) and character strengths and virtues. It is noteworthy that different conceptual models each have their unique advantages and limitations in the context of education. Despite the Upstream Documents assigning the responsibility of developing assessment models (result-based, process-based, and integrative) to educational leaders, a model specifically for non-cognitive educational goals has yet to be proposed. Furthermore, while non-cognitive competencies are frequently mentioned in the Upstream Documents, they have not been systematically examined and classified. The development of such competencies not only enhances students' academic achievement but also aids them in stress reduction, management of challenging situations, avoidance of risky behaviors, and the establishment of positive peer relationships. Research Questions: This study aimed to design a framework for assessing non-cognitive/non-academic achievement. The research questions explored were: What is the conceptual framework for non-cognitive achievement assessment based on the Upstream Documents, literature review, and educational experts, and is this framework valid?

The study was structured in two phases; the qualitative research phase involved the examination of three primary sources: 1) Upstream Documents of the Educational System of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 2) research literature, and 3) expert interviews. A total of three Upstream Documents and 24 literature documents were reviewed. The primary Upstream Documents included the Fundamental Reform Document of Education (FRDE), its theoretical foundation, and the Iranian National Curriculum. These documents were selected due to their integral role in the formal educational system of Iran, where all educational activities, from curriculum development to workplace policies, are expected to align with them. In relation to the second data source, databases were explored using keywords that reflected social-emotional skills, character strengths, and constructs stated in the Upstream Documents. The PRISMA diagram was utilized to organize the texts. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather data from field experts, with judgmental-purposeful sampling employed to select the participants. The sampling process continued until information saturation was achieved (n=10). In the quantitative phase, the framework was validated using a researcher-made questionnaire. The face validity, content validity (CVI), and reliability (Alpha) of the questionnaire were calculated and confirmed by the participation of n=30 experts.

The Summative Content Analysis, conducted using the Strauss & Corbin standard procedure via MAXQDA-2020 and the Colaizzi method, yielded four dimensions and thirteen categories. The identified dimensions encompass designing a strategic plan, collecting evidence/data, drawing conclusions, and determining consequences. The internal validity of the framework was confirmed through data analysis using a One-Sample T-test, which yielded a significant result (p < .05, DF = 29, t = 2.49). This indicates that the framework is statistically significant and reliable for assessing non-cognitive/non-academic achievement.

The study's findings indicate that, based on the three primary sources of information, several decisions need to be made to effectively assess non-cognitive competencies. The initial step in establishing an assessment system for non-cognitive competencies involves developing a strategic plan. Prior to initiating the assessment procedure, it is crucial to determine the approach to conceptualizing and instructing non-cognitive competencies, which will guide assessment activities. Decisions need to be made regarding which areas of interest are being integrated into the academic content or are planned to be taught through direct teaching methods. A range of non-cognitive competencies can be taught through the establishment of a positive learning environment and the implementation of general teaching activities. However, these critical issues have not been clearly addressed in the Upstream Documents. The second category, gathering data and evidence, encompasses practical assessment activities. Such practices can ensure reliable results. A key criterion to bear in mind is to avoid relying solely on a single tool or technique for data collection. While some of the methods mentioned above are found in the Upstream Documents, they are not specifically categorized in a way that teachers can confidently rely on to assess non-cognitive competencies. In the third category (conclusion), decisions should be made regarding data analysis and interpretation. Various forms of errors and biases should be considered before reaching a conclusion. The fourth category, consequences, pertains to the impact of assessment practices. Ideally, the results of the assessment should be used to enhance the quality of different levels of education systems. Policymakers and communities should consider the results of non-cognitive assessments. Important decisions could be made based on the results, such as where to target supportive resources to students or classrooms identified as expressing particular needs. The current status of Iran's education system in achieving its non-cognitive goals should be investigated, as it is unclear how successful the system has been in reaching these goals. The Organization for Educational Research and Planning (OERP), which is responsible for publishing and reviewing teachers' guidebooks, has the capacity to revise and enrich them. Non-cognitive competencies are multifaceted and should therefore be formulated and conceptualized precisely. Standards, criteria, and benchmarks should be established for assessing non-cognitive competencies. Initially, some critical decisions should be made regarding the instructional process. As non-cognitive competencies in teachers can directly impact their ability to teach these skills, universities responsible for teacher education, such as Farhangian and Shaheed Rajai Universities, should strive to enhance these competencies in teachers. Curriculum planning, implementing teaching, and assessment activities could be reformed based on the framework. Further discussions and suggestions were presented relevant to the educational system of Iran.

Psychological well-being, characterized by positive emotions and overall life satisfaction, encompasses various domains such as family, education, and more. Riff’s model conceptualizes psychological well-being as a comprehensive developmental process that spans an individual’s lifespan. One construct related to consciousness that has been discussed for its impact on well-being is mindfulness. Mindfulness, defined as conscious, deliberate, and continuous attention in the present moment, is a burgeoning field of research in mental health. Empirical evidence suggests that teachers should employ mindfulness training to enhance students’ psychological well-being. Another variable addressed in this research is self-esteem, a crucial construct associated with a broad spectrum of psychological outcomes such as general psychological adjustment, positive emotions, social confidence, personal behavior, and life satisfaction. Research findings indicate a positive correlation between self-esteem and all dimensions of psychological well-being. To the best of the researcher’s knowledge, no study has directly or concurrently examined the relationship between the variables of the present study. The current research aims to compile and test this set of relationships in a model format. Accordingly, this study was conducted to investigate the relationship between mindfulness and psychological well-being, with self-esteem serving as a mediator. Research Hypothesis: The research hypothesis is as follows: Self-esteem mediates the relationship between mindfulness and psychological well-being.

The current research employs a correlational method to investigate the structural relationships between the research variables using the structural equation modeling. The research population comprised all undergraduate students of Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht branch, enrolled in the 2020-2021 academic year. Upon data collection and entry into the computer, SPSS-25 and AMOS-20 software were utilized. The sample size was determined to be 393 individuals, selected using the cluster sampling method. Initially, four faculties (Humanities, Basic Sciences, Technical Engineering, Educational Sciences, and Psychology) were randomly selected from the faculties of Islamic Azad University of Marvdasht branch. Subsequently, three classes were chosen from each faculty, and all students in these classes completed the questionnaires individually. It is worth noting that Kline’s recommendation (2016) was considered in determining the sample size. Kline (2016) suggests that the appropriate sample size for the structural equation modeling test should be 10 to 20 times the number of parameters of the research model. The inclusion criteria for the study were informed consent of the participants and enrollment in the specified academic year, while the exclusion criteria were a history of specific physical and mental illness (according to the subjects’ self-report) and incomplete questionnaires. The APA ethical code, comprising important principles and ethical standards, was adhered to in this research. The majority of participants in the current research were female, numbering 203 (51.65%), with an average age of 21.44 and a standard deviation of 3.25 years. Male participants numbered 190 (48.35%), with an average age of 21.30 and a standard deviation of 3.39 years.

The findings demonstrated a good fit between the research model and the collected data. Furthermore, the results indicated that the direct effects of mindfulness on self-esteem and psychological well-being, as well as the direct effect of self-esteem on psychological well-being, were significant. Notably, the impact of mindfulness on psychological well-being, mediated by self-esteem, was also significant. These findings suggest that self-esteem serves as a mediator in the relationship between mindfulness and psychological well-being.

This study aimed to explore the mediating role of self-esteem in the relationship between mindfulness and the psychological well-being of a student cohort. The findings related to direct relationships revealed a positive and significant direct effect of mindfulness on students’ psychological well-being. This outcome can be interpreted as mindfulness, through its role in promoting happiness, cheerfulness, and mental clarity, inherently fostering a positive and pleasant state in an individual. Indeed, it can be posited that mindfulness of events and experiences can be beneficial and effective for mental health. The study results also indicated a positive and significant direct effect of mindfulness on self-esteem. Individuals practicing mindfulness exhibit non-judgmental acceptance of their situation, which contributes to maintaining secure self-esteem. Additionally, the results revealed a positive and direct relationship between self-esteem and psychological well-being. In essence, self-esteem is positively correlated with all dimensions of psychological well-being. Individuals with higher self-esteem tend to have better psychological health and exhibit a reduced psychological response to stress. Regarding the primary hypothesis of the study, which postulated that “self-esteem plays a mediating role in the relationship between mindfulness and psychological well-being,” the present research validated this hypothesis. Given the results obtained and considering the role of mindfulness and self-esteem in explaining psychological well-being, it is feasible to enhance students’ psychological well-being by conducting educational workshops on mindfulness and self-esteem. Consequently, it is recommended that similar research be conducted in other universities, taking into account the ethnic, cultural, economic, and social lifestyle of the students to obtain more reliable results. One limitation of the current research is its reliance on causal inference from the relationships included in the proposed model.

The experience of adolescence, with its dramatic changes in various aspects of a teenager’s life, presents demands that, in the absence of certain psychological qualities, can make a safe and less-damaged transition from those confrontations challenging. According to available evidence, one of the most critical psychological qualities specifying a teenager’s chosen lifestyle is emotional regulation. Various researchers have endeavored in different ways and by developing diverse conceptual models to emphasize the role of factors affecting the emotional regulation style of adolescents (Sabzi & Shokri, in press). In this study, the researcher aims to analyze the difference in the regulation style focused on positive reappraisal by emphasizing the informational power of psychological resilience constructs and coping strategies with stressful experiences, and also by referring to the mediating role of the psychological quality of mindfulness. The development of this conceptual model, with the collection of targeted constructs for the systematic study of emotional regulation style focused on cognitive reappraisal, is necessary for at least two reasons. First, the simultaneous emphasis on these conceptual domains in the form of a hypothesized model, based on theoretical and empirical foundations, is a novel approach. Therefore, the researcher assumes that the present study, with its innovative aggregation of selected concepts, is of undeniable importance in expanding the informational boundaries in the field of studies of emotional regulation styles in adolescents. Second, the logic of the conceptual community and the emphasis on the interpretative capacities of mindfulness play an important role in strengthening the content of preventive psychoeducational interventions for adolescents. Therefore, the results of the present research are crucial in the development of training programs for emotional regulation in adolescents. In the present study, the researcher sought to test the proposed mediation model of mindfulness in relation to resilience and coping strategies with cognitive reappraisal based on the conceptual positions derived from the coping process theory. In general, this theory emphasizes that the difference in the multiple consequences of facing stressful experiences, such as the difference in the processing styles of the motivating events, can be explained through the difference in the reserve of coping resources.

In this correlational study, the research population included female students of the first secondary school in the 11th district of Tehran in the academic year of 2021-2022. A total of 486 female adolescents, who were selected by the available sampling method, responded to the Adolescent Resilience Scale (ARS), the Adolescent and Adult Mindfulness Scale (AAMS), the Cognitive Reappraisal Scale (CRS), and the Proactive Coping Scale (PCS). Structural equation modelling was used to assess the mediating effect of mindfulness on the relationship between resilience and coping strategies with cognitive reappraisal among female adolescents. After collecting the data, the AMOS-18 statistical package was used to analyze them using the statistical method of structural equation modelling.

Initially, the data were checked for normality, outliers, and multicollinearity. Univariate outliers were examined via Z-score values in SPSS, revealing no abnormal or outside the range of predictable values. Furthermore, data were screened for instances of multicollinearity via analysis of tolerance (TOL) and variance inflation factor (VIF). Multicollinearity was not present as all TOL indices were >0.10 and all VIF measures were <3. Results indicated that for female students, the completely mediated model of mindfulness on the relationship between resilience and coping strategies with cognitive reappraisal among female adolescents exhibited a good fit to the data. Moreover, all of the regression weights in the hypothesized model were statistically significant, and the model’s predictors accounted for 52% of the variance in mindfulness and 60% of the variance in cognitive reappraisal.

According to the available empirical evidence, adolescence is a stage in a person’s life in which teenagers, upon entering this period and subsequently facing the inevitability of confronting challenging demands arising from being in different situations, exhibit distinct levels of resilient encounters. In other words, the period of adolescence and its coincidence with the accumulation of changes in various psychological and physical fields, and of course, the requirement to respond adaptively to such experiences, at this point, is considered an important developmental task (Chen, 2021). A review of various studies shows that educational researchers have always strived to include in their research priorities, in addition to understanding how teenagers respond to developmental tasks, a methodical examination of how they encounter motivating experiences in academic progress situations (Santos, Simoes, Cefai, Freitas, & Arriaga, 2021). According to the available evidence, adolescence is the period of facing a wide range of demands in different fields of personal and social life of the teenager. The quality of pursuing developmental tasks in this period of human life is understood in the context of the psychological qualities of adolescents (Chen, 2021). Based on the conceptual positions of the coping process theory (Lazarus, 2006), the quality of people’s evaluation in the face of surrounding motivating experiences is understood by referring to some of their psychological qualities such as psychological resilience and coping strategies with stressful experiences (Santos et al., 2021). According to the available evidence, one of the determinants of cognitive interpretations is resilient encounters. In this section, it is assumed that part of the difference in meaning creation for peripheral experiences can be understood through psychological resilience. In addition, people’s ways of coping with stressful experiences are also effective in using empowering interpretations or disempowering interpretations dimensions of cognitive interpretations (Hambour et al. 2018). A review of the research background shows that most of the researchers interested in the intellectual possibilities of the coping process theory have tried to study the positions of this theory by using each of the two causal methodologies of mediation and moderation. In sum, these findings of the present study, in line with the conceptual positions of coping process theory, show that predicting the preferred method of cognitive confrontation with peripheral demands through the functional characteristics of resilience variables and active confrontation in the context of information makes sense for other concepts such as mindfulness. In other words, in accordance with the realistic approach of coping process theory, the comprehensibility of different forms of people’s confrontations with surrounding stressful situations finds meaning in the informational context of a complex network of relationships between different interrelated constructs.

Students are exposed to a spectrum of emotional experiences, namely joy, pride, hope, anxiety, shame, and boredom, within academic settings. These emotions are currently referred to as achievement emotions. While previous studies have largely overlooked these emotions, with the exception of test anxiety and those related to success and failure, recent research has underscored their influential role in attention, decision-making, memory, problem-solving, well-being, and the academic performance of students. Indeed, positive emotions, which are defined as pleasant emotions, can enhance one’s agentic engagement, self-efficacy, self-regulation, and academic achievement. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to identify the factors that can predict positive achievement emotions. In light of the control-value theory of achievement emotions and existing research, environments that support autonomy have the potential to facilitate positive achievement emotions through perceived control and value beliefs. Such an environment enables students to engage voluntarily in an activity and perceive its control and value by fostering a sense of autonomy. Moreover, achievement goals can serve as mediators in this relationship. In other words, environments that support autonomy, where students are given the freedom to decide their course of action, encourage students to select assignments they either wish to master or outperform others in (i.e., mastery and performance-approach goals). These goals, which instil a perception of control over academic performance and elevate the value of learning assignments, will increase the likelihood of positive emotions. Conversely, by suppressing performance-avoidance goals, which could potentially undermine perceived control and value, these environments can enhance the aforementioned emotions. However, this specific model has yet to be studied. Given the circumstances during the Covid-19 pandemic, where students have been confined indoors and subjected to online instruction, which tends to be less structured than face-to-face classes, their performance, emotions, motivation, and engagement could be significantly impacted. Furthermore, due to the content and demands of arts classes, which necessitate the development of dexterity and skills, students participating in such online classes are at a higher risk of emotional problems. Thus, it appears even more crucial to explore emotions in these settings and determine their antecedents. To this end, the present study investigated the predictive role of an autonomy-supportive environment in positive achievement emotions (i.e., hope, pride, and joy) among arts students and the mediating role of achievement goals in this relationship.

The current study employs a correlational approach and utilizes a structural equation model. This model includes the autonomy-supportive environment as the predictor, achievement goals as the mediator, and positive achievement emotions as the criterion variable. The research population of the study comprised all students of arts studies at Neyshabour Arts School and Mashhad Islamic Azad College of Arts. Due to social distancing measures and institutional closures amid the Covid-19 pandemic, and in accordance with Kline’s criterion for sample size in structural equation modelling (which suggests 10 to 20 respondents per estimated parameter), a convenient sample of 320 students was selected. These students were asked to complete the online Persian version of the Autonomy-Supportive Environment Questionnaire, the Positive Achievement Emotions subscale of the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire, and the Personal Achievement Goals Orientation derived from Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scales, if they wished to participate. Participants were informed about the purpose of the study and assured that the data collected through the aforementioned questionnaires would remain confidential and only be accessible to the researchers. Descriptive statistics were used, and structural equation modelling was conducted to analyze the data and test the hypotheses.

The results indicated that the proposed research model was a good fit with the data. Furthermore, it was found that the autonomy-supportive environment could directly predict the positive achievement emotions of arts students. It was also revealed that achievement goals partially mediated the relationship between the autonomy-supportive environment and positive achievement emotions. Therefore, both hypotheses of the study were confirmed.

In light of the findings, it can be concluded that supporting students’ autonomy, specifically in online educational environments and in arts classes, is crucial as it can facilitate the occurrence of positive achievement emotions via the achievement goals they choose to pursue. In other words, creating environments where students are given the opportunity for choice, criticism, and examination of goals, values, and interests can encourage them to set mastery and performance-approach goals. Such goals will likely increase the chances of experiencing positive achievement emotions. Conversely, autonomy-supportive environments can weaken performance-avoidance goals, which are considered detrimental to students’ emotions. As a result, these environments can foster positive emotional experiences among students. It is therefore suggested that the Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology should prioritize the study of how to develop autonomy-supportive environments and apply the findings to all institutes. Moreover, future research should focus on the relationship between autonomy-supportive environments and other types of emotions (e.g., epistemic emotions and social emotions) across various educational contexts to further elaborate on the importance of such environments.

In recent years, experiences related to the spread of Covid-19 and advancements in technology have rendered the use of virtual education inevitable. However, students often lack the necessary skills to effectively utilize this mode of education. In face-to-face education, the guidance of a teacher in regulating learning is readily available, but in virtual education, this possibility is significantly reduced. Consequently, learners are compelled to employ more self-regulation skills to achieve success. The concept of self-regulation in the realm of education and learning is encapsulated under the title of self-regulated learning. Self-regulated learning is a process whereby learners activate and sustain their emotions, behaviors, and cognitions, systematically adjusting them to achieve their learning goals. The application of self-regulation skills in virtual and online education is referred to as self-regulated learning in online education. Self-regulation skill, akin to any other skill or ability, is influenced by numerous individual and social factors. According to Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory, social rules and instructions are internalized during cognitive development, and individuals utilize them to direct their behavior, emotions, and thoughts. In the developmental process, these internalized rules are termed inner speech. Inner speech aids learning, initially guided by the social environment and others, to be directed and regulated by individuals themselves, transitioning from other-regulation to self-regulation. Research evidence suggests that this form of speech enhances both cognitive and behavioral self-regulation in childhood and adulthood, and the use of inner speech can improve cognitive function (behavior and cognition regulation). When inner speech is employed in assignments and learning situations, it is referred to as learning-specific inner speech. Research shows that self-management, as one of the components of learning-specific inner speech, has a positive relationship with executive functions and logical reasoning. Also, according to self-determination theory, the internalization of societal guidelines and values is influenced by the social and cultural context of that society. If the social environment supports basic psychological needs, such as the need for autonomy, the ability for self-regulation increases. From this perspective, it can be posited that social environments, such as the family and academic environments that support the need for autonomy, can facilitate inner speech and self-regulated learning. Considering that most studies on this skill have focused on face-to-face education, the researchers of the present study were prompted to investigate what factors aid students’ self-regulation in online education. The importance of this research lies in the fact that possessing self-regulated learning skills in online education is more crucial than in face-to-face education because in online education, teachers have less direct supervision and students have more freedom in their actions. The aim of this study was to investigate the mediating role of learning-specific inner speech in the relationship between an autonomy-supportive environment and self-regulated learning in online education. Research Questions: The questions of the present research include: 1. Does the autonomy-supportive environment have a direct effect on self-regulated learning in online education? 2. Does the autonomy-supportive environment have a direct effect on learning-specific inner speech? 3. Does learning-specific inner speech have a direct effect on self-regulated learning in online education? 4. Does learning-specific inner speech play a significant mediating role in the relationship between an autonomy-supportive environment and self-regulated learning in online education?

In this research, a sample group of 267 university students (including 186 females and 81 males) was selected via multi-stage cluster random sampling. Participants completed the Learning Climate Questionnaire (Williams et al., 1996), Perceptions of Parents Scale (Robbins, 1994), Learning-Specific Inner Speech Scale (Xiang et al., 2019), and Self-Regulated Learning Online Questionnaire (Jansen et al., 2017). These questionnaires were provided to them online. Structural equation modelling was performed using AMOS software, version 24.

The results of the structural equation modelling, conducted using AMOS software version 24, indicated that among the two dimensions of autonomy-supportive environments, only teacher autonomy support significantly predicts learning-specific inner speech. Furthermore, both dimensions of the autonomy-supportive environment and learning-specific inner speech significantly predicted self-regulated learning in online education. Learning-specific inner speech also played a significant mediating role in the relationship between teacher autonomy support and self-regulated learning in online education.

The results of this study align with theoretical foundations and research which underscore the importance of an autonomy-supportive environment and learning-specific inner speech in self-regulated learning. One limitation of this research is its correlational design; therefore, caution should be exercised when interpreting the results in a causal manner.

The ability to understand oneself and others in social interactions, or social cognition, has been a significant topic that has received much attention in recent years in psychology. Theory of mind and emotional knowledge are among the fundamental skills of social cognition. Theory of mind refers to an individual's ability to understand and attribute mental states to oneself and others. Research has emphasized the role of children's interactions with family members and maternal interactive characteristics in promoting theory of mind. Another important ability in social cognition is emotional knowledge, which describes children's adaptive use of emotional information. Emotional knowledge refers to the ability to recognize one's own and others' emotional states, as well as identify emotional situations. Research has shown the impact of parenting style, parental reactions to children's emotions, and emotional conversations within the family on the development of children's emotional knowledge. Overall, theoretical foundations and research demonstrate the influence of parental-child interactions on the development of children's theory of mind and emotional knowledge, emphasizing the concept of mediational interactions, which is central to Feuerstein's theory. Parental awareness of the importance of their interactions and shifting their perspective from passive interaction with the child to a mediational relationship can only be achieved through parental education. Research has shown that parental education improves the quality of their mediation in everyday interactions with their child and enhances children's cognitive abilities. The mother-mediated intervention package based on the integrated human development approach is a group-based parenting program for mothers that enhances the skills (theory of mind and emotional knowledge) influenced by parent-child interactions. This package consists of 8 sessions, each lasting 90 minutes, for mothers of 4 to 6-year-old children, and is adapted to enhance theory of mind and emotional knowledge based on existing intervention packages grounded in the theoretical foundations of the integrated human development approach. The aim of this study was to adapt, validate, and evaluate the effectiveness of the mother-mediated intervention package based on the integrated human development approach in improving the theory of mind and emotional knowledge of preschool children.

The method of this research was experimental with a pre-test post-test design with a control group. Among the research population, 24 mothers and children (13 girls and 11 boys) were selected using the convenience method and randomly assigned to two experimental and control groups. In this research, to measure the theory of mind, the collection of theory of mind assignments was used, and to measure emotional knowledge, the emotional matching task was used. First, the training protocol of mothers’ mediation was adapted to increase the ability of theory of mind and emotional knowledge, and its validity was examined and verified using experts' opinions and content validity indicators. Training was provided to the experimental group in 8 sessions of 90 minutes.

Comparison of theory of mind and emotional knowledge dimensions showed a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in theory of mind. Other results indicated a significant difference between the experimental and control groups in Emotion Expression Matching and Situation-Emotion Expression Matching. Statistically significant differences were also found in Emotion Expression Labeling and Label-Emotion Expression Matching. The mean comparisons showed that the participants in the experimental group had higher scores than those in the control group in all variables.

In light of the findings of this study and related research, it has been observed that the more children experience mediated interactions in their relationships with parents, the better their cognitive and emotional abilities develop. Even short-term interventions in the nature of mother-mediated interactions have been shown to significantly increase the quality of these interactions and consequently enhance children's cognitive functioning. Therefore, it is recommended that this educational program be utilized by all teachers, mothers, and educators who are striving to enhance the theory of mind and emotional knowledge abilities of children

Previous studies have highlighted the effects of cooperative learning (CL) on improving academic achievement and enhancing students' learning and academic performance, but have not shown how this happens. CL can be beneficial for all students, regardless of their gender or level of knowledge. It encourages students to work with others in a cooperative environment, share their ideas and information, and achieve a clearer understanding and more sustainable comprehension of subject matter. However, these benefits are evident when CL is properly implemented. Research Queations: 1. Do students who are educated through CL have greater academic achievement in teaching methods course compared to students taught using traditional methods? 2. Do students who are educated through CL have greater academic achievement in educational planning course compared to students taught using traditional methods? 3. Is the effect of CL on the academic achievement of male and female students in teaching methods and educational planning courses different? 4. How do students describe their experience with CL in teaching methods and educational planning classes?

This mixed-method study, conducted with an explanatory approach, first collected quantitative data and then qualitative data to explain the results of the experimental study and identify the impact of CL on students' academic achievement. Eighty-eight undergraduate students in the field of education were selected for the study in two experimental and control groups using available sampling method. The students of the experimental group were taught for 16 sessions through the CL approach. The control group was also taught in these two subjects by the traditional method, which is usually lectures. At the end of the semester, the students of the experimental group, whose number was 44, participated in a semi-structured interview to recount their learning experiences after the intervention.

The results showed that the students of the experimental group had better performance in both subjects including teaching methods and educational planning course. No significant interactive effect between teaching method and participants' gender was found. Students' perception also showed that CL not only creates an empathetic, safe and pleasant learning environment and strengthens students' personal and communication skills, but also improves their learning quality.

Some studies have supported the findings of the present study and have revealed the effect of CL on the academic achievement of students, and others have focused on non-academic effects such as strengthening communication skills, a pleasure interactive environment, strengthening perseverance and the spirit of effort. While qualitative data of the current study can provide a starting point for using other qualitative methods such as observation for a deeper understanding of the CL environment, they implicitly show that cooperative learning can be implemented in university classrooms.