فصلنامه آیین حکمت
سال چهاردهم شماره 53 (پیاپی 54، زمستان 1401)

Robert Nozick's entitle theory of justice with the title "Justice as entitlement" is an individualistic, duty-oriented and right-oriented perspective. This view is based on the theory of natural rights. As an authoritarian thinker, Nozick presents his theory based on the above principles in three rules. He is against increasing the power of the government to the extent that it can redistribute property and assets based on certain patterns (for example, supporting the needy). This view is a reaction to Rawls's theory and any type of welfare state in the field of justice. This article examines the basics of the theory and the theory itself with a descriptive-analytical method in two parts. In addition to the basic problems, the problems in the theory include: ambiguity in the three rules, disregard for content justice, reduction of justice to the domain of ownership, incomplete explanation of ownership factors, ignoring public charity, ignoring the problems of the free market, freedom of slavery, incomplete explanation of the legitimacy of the tax, and failure to provide a solution for the withdrawal of assets from ownership.

The discussion of causation in general and the discussion of the mu`iddih cause is one of the important and path-breaking topics of ontology, which can play a significant role in correct understanding in theology, cosmology, and anthropology. Despite all this, the problem of the mu`iddih cause has been less analyzed and sometimes it is satisfied with a vague definition of it. This ambiguity has turned the mu`iddih cause into a brief answer in many cases. Going through this formal definition and analyzing what exactly is the mu`iddih cause? It can be the basis for deep understanding and solving many problems, such as the doubt of the conflict between science and religion. Because the causes that the sciences investigate and seek to deny or prove are of this kind, and a cause such as vajib al-vujud, which is discussed in religious debates, is one causing existence. In this research, with the method of rational analysis, the definitions given of the mu`iddih cause have been examined, the defects and shortcomings of each have been shown, and it has been found that the mu`iddih cause when not meaning the presence and lack of preceding necessary and path of grace, it is the factor that prepares the matter, creates the capability in the capable and prepare it to receive grace of grace-giver.

Harari's thought, like any other thought, originates from a series of methodological and epistemological principles. Considering the direct impact of the methodical and epistemological approach of every thinker on how to achieve the results, it is necessary to investigate them with analytical-critical method. In this article, it is shown that Harari belongs to "extreme empiricism" and uses "incomplete induction" to reach his general claims. This is despite the fact that considering the way to reach reality in the experimental method is a self-defeating claim and logically incomplete induction does not have the necessary efficiency to reach general results. Also, in terms of method, Harari is trying to present a coherent story of human history by "making claims without reasons" in many cases. Nevertheless, putting them together in some cases has led to "internal inconsistencies" and shows a "superficiality" and lack of scientific obsession in his works. Examining the methodology and epistemology of Harari's works leads us to the fact that he was unable to adopt the correct epistemological principles and for this reason, significant problems and shortcomings have infiltrated his thought.

The common perspective on the relationship between the special sort of gradation (tashkīk-i khāṣṣī) and the particular unity (al-waḥdat al-shakhsī) of existence suggests their contradiction. According to this view, if one adheres to the particular unity of existence, they must go past the special sort of gradation and believe in the gradation of manifestations of existence rather than the gradation of existence. However, ‘Allāmah Ṭabāṭabā’ī, in his "Conversations," presents a different perspective and believes that these two concepts are not contradictory. This article, employing a descriptive-analytical approach, aims to elucidate the manner of compatibility between the special sort of gradation and the particular unity of existence based on the philosophical foundations of ‘Allāmah Ṭabāṭabā’ī. Finally it becomes evident that, according to ‘Allāmah Ṭabāṭabā'ī’s viewpoint, every cause has an encompassing distinction concerning its effect and, as a result, enjoys a category absoluteness (iṭlāq-i maqsamī). Additionally, he believes that although the effect does not have an independent existence, it does exist. These principles lead to the explanation of the particular unity of existence due to its category absoluteness and the clarification of gradation of existence because of the existence of effects.

Feminism, in general, is a theory that advocates for equal opportunities and rights for women in political, economic, and social aspects. Multiple tendencies can be seen within this theory, where radical feminism belongs to the movements of the second wave of feminism. Radical feminists deny and oppose matters such as marriage, reproduction, motherhood, and family in general. Similarly, they consider marriage equivalent to immodesty, label motherhood as a burden on women, and perceive it as a tool for suppressing them. Conversely, various thinkers and movements amongst the Western or Islamic philosophers have scrutinized and criticized the components of radical feminism. Sometimes, their viewpoints serve as criteria in the process of explaining these issues. In the Islamic context, prominent scholars like ‘Allāmah Ṭabāṭabā’ī consider marriage a natural and intrinsic phenomenon, viewing reproduction and childbearing as the only intrinsic factor of marriage. From his perspective, a cause and effect relationship exists between a mother and her child, originating from reality, rather than mere convention or the product of education and  upbringing.  Another example of considerable influence in this discussion is  ‘Allāmah’s perspective on the "inherent dignity of human." Similarly, numerous other aspects can be found in his viewpoints, based on which many components of feminism can be examined. This article seeks to undertake this task.

The examination of essential accident plays a crucial role in the discussion on the subject of science, and the distinction between sciences as well as in the technique of proof (burhān). According to ‘Allāmah Ṭabātabā’ī, essential accident is exclusive to predicates equal to the subject. This means that intermediary predicates and those predicates that are more general or more specific than the subject are not essential accidents. To substantiate his viewpoint, it was argued that the certainty of a proposition requires the essentiality of its predicate, and the essentiality of the proposition’s predicate necessitates its certainty. Since predication of the intermediary predicates is not certain, such a predicate is not essential accident. It was also demonstrated that essential accident is postulated through "the postulation of the subject (al-mawḍu’)" and is otherwise not certain. Moreover, it is negated through the "removal of subject", or else leads to contradiction. It was subsequently established that the concomitant of these two features is the equality of essential accident with the subject. Finally, responses were provided to two objections. The first dealt with the predicates that were mediators of subsistence. This objection was countered by distinguishing between the judgment of unity and the actual realization of the predicate. The second addressed the claim that if the predicate is more general than the subject, the proposition can be certain. It was countered with the response that this assumption leads to the cancellation of the condition inferred in the subject, and is a contradiction. Asserting certainty in this proposition stems from being imprecise.