فصلنامه جامعه شناسی کاربردی
سال سی و چهارم شماره 4 (پیاپی 92، زمستان 1402)

Street harassment is a form of violence that women experience in various societies, hindering their ability to participate fully and freely in public spaces. Unfortunately, this type of persecution is prevalent in Afghanistan as well. Women in urban Afghan communities often face harassment from men based on factors, such as the distance they travel or the time they spend on the streets. Herat, one of the major cities in Afghanistan, has been plagued by street harassment against women and girls for many years. This research aimed to explore the factors that contributed to street harassment in Herat City, highlighting its significance as a pressing issue. The study held particular importance for women as they faced numerous obstacles in attaining their civil liberties with street harassment being a pervasive problem that has long been overlooked. To analyze this issue, the research drew upon Andre Michel's theories of gender stereotypes, Watson's examination of spatialized gender relations, and Ryan's concept of gender deprivation.

A cross-sectional survey was employed as the research method for this study. The statistical population comprised both single and married urban girls residing in Herat Province. The sample size was determined to be 350 individuals, who were selected using the non-probability (quota) sampling method. To ensure the validity of the questionnaire, the construct validity method and exploratory factor analysis were utilized. The results of the analysis revealed that the factors extracted in this research aligned with the researcher's theoretical expectations. Furthermore, the cases with suitable factor loadings were confirmed both theoretically and experimentally.

The majority of respondents (47.7%) fell within the age range of 16 to 21 years. The sample also consisted of both single individuals (48.6%) and married individuals (44.3%). The analysis revealed that areas with limited urban services experienced a higher average level of street harassment compared to those with more developed urban services. Specifically, individuals, who utilized rickshaws and flan-coach vehicles, reported a higher likelihood of experiencing street harassment with average scores of 3.07 and 2.90, respectively. On the other hand, those who used taxis reported the least amount of inconvenience. Furthermore, the study found that street disturbance was more prevalent on sidewalks (2.46), quiet streets (2.40), shopping centers and markets (2.38), crowded neighborhoods (2.26), and narrow alleys (2.10) compared to other locations. In contrast, playgrounds (1.56) and fields (1.57) experienced the least amounts of disturbance. Additionally, a positive and significant correlation was observed between the variable of social exclusion and street harassment with a correlation coefficient of 0.180 and a confidence level of 99%. Similarly, the analysis revealed a positive and significant correlation between the amount of women's clothing and street harassment with a correlation coefficient of 0.334 and a confidence level of 99%. In conclusion, the findings of this study highlighted the prevalence of street harassment in Herat City and shed light on various factors that contributed to its occurrence. The results emphasized the importance of addressing urban service disparities, promoting safer transportation options and creating inclusive public spaces to mitigate street harassment. Furthermore, the study underscored the need for social inclusion and challenged societal norms regarding women's clothing to combat street harassment effectively. Street harassment is a form of violence predominantly perpetrated by men against women in public spaces, encompassing verbal, physical, visual, and stalking behaviors. This type of violence has detrimental effects on women, including erosion of their sexual identity, feelings of shame and worthlessness, compromised personal security, infringement upon human dignity, pessimism towards the opposite sex, strain within familial relationships, disruption of social interactions, and moral corruption. Consequently, it is crucial to devise solutions in societies where women experience such harassment, ensuring the well-being of this vulnerable group and preventing their alienation from society. Given the diversity of societies, it is important to recognize that a one-size-fits-all solution is not applicable. Instead, solutions should be tailored to the specific cultural context and sensitivities of each society. By taking into account these factors, appropriate and effective measures can be proposed to address street harassment and safeguard the rights and dignity of women.

The issue of administrative corruption has become a pressing matter in Iran, affecting various aspects of the society. Corruption is a persistent and complex problem that perpetuates human underdevelopment through harmful cycles. According to Transparency International Organization, it involves the exploitation of entrusted power for personal gain. Despite the widespread presence of corruption within Iranian society, current evidence from both internal and external sources suggests that the education system conflicts with academic institutions as a particularly influential source of corrupt behavior. Academic corruption is a well-known phenomenon in Iranian universities with numerous examples, such as scientific fraud, plagiarism, forgery, distortion, academic black market, and buying and selling of articles appearing in the country's universities. Some investigators consider academic corruption as a form of scientific corruption, while others define it as encompassing all forms of unethical and improper conduct committed by educational advocates that violate ethical, social, legal, or institutional guidelines for personal or organizational gain with detrimental effects on an institution's objectives and principles. Despite the long-standing use of the term "academic corruption" in Iran's scholastic context, it remains largely unexplored from a scholarly perspective.

This study utilized qualitative methodology and a grounded theory approach to explore the perspectives of academic activists, including professors and doctoral students, on various aspects related to fraudulent practices in academia, such as contexts, causes, strategies, and repercussions. Grounded theory is a research method that involves deriving theoretical constructs directly from the data collected over time for analytical purposes. The research followed the Strauss and Corbin’s paradigm model, which is a systematic plan for grounded theory methodology. The focus was on professors and doctoral students from Shiraz and Yasouj universities, who were selected based on their experiences with academic corruption. A sample of 25 participants was chosen through theoretical sampling and semi-structured interviews were conducted until theoretical saturation was reached, meaning that no new features or characteristics related to academic corruption and its causes were identified. The collected information underwent a three-fold coding process, including open, axial, and selective coding methods, to facilitate the analysis of the results. This process led to the identification of a core category or primary classification, which was represented in a paradigm model. To ensure the accuracy of the findings, two researchers independently analyzed and coded the data using analytical techniques. Additionally, member feedback was collected to assess the validity of the communication and respondent validation was employed through continuous comparison checks by using the codes developed by the investigators to assess the reliability of the research results.

The findings of this study revealed that corruption in academia was influenced by various factors. The primary causal conditions included the presence of oil money, a deficient administrative system, and compromised institutional independence. In addition, poor awareness of corrupt practices and inadequate monitoring mechanisms acted as the intervening circumstances that facilitated academic misconduct. Situational factors, such as departmental culture and individual work experience, as well as background guidelines like university policies, also played a significant role in promoting fraudulent activities within higher education institutions. On the other hand, academic activists employed strategies, such as student alienation, deliberate silence, two-way blackmail, outsourcing, hostage-taking, and strategic cooperation, to further their corrupt practices. The consequences of academic corruption were commodification of science, emergence of an academic proletariat, alienation, moral dilemmas, decline in credibility and trust in universities, and institutionalization of corruption in the society. Based on the results, it could be concluded that university corruption operated as a double-edged sword, benefiting both the structure and the activist in the short term but leading to negative outcomes in the long run. This meant that the political structure and system, by prioritizing the quantity of articles produced through scientific research, could showcase their standing in the global community, while academic scholars benefited from the publishing papers and projects. However, this approach had drawbacks for both parties involved. The articles evaluated solely based on quantity did not directly correlate with production or economic growth, resulting in limited social welfare within a country. Moreover, the professors and students, who prioritized the publishing quantitative content might experience a sense of alienation as they grappled with conflicting emotions regarding their moral principles. It is important to recognize that this win-win mentality perpetuates corruption within the university system, creating a reproductive cycle that continues into the future.

The university classroom serves as a multifaceted setting that provides insights into the evolving landscape of higher education. In its most basic form, it offers a window through which one can comprehend the developments, transformations, and overall happenings within universities. To gain a comprehensive understanding of these shifts and evolutions, as well as intricacies of the university environment, the ideal starting point is observation of activities within university classrooms. The classroom serves as somewhere more than just a place for learning and teaching. It also functions as a social environment where students can form new relationships and enhance their communication skills, thereby shaping their identities and promoting their socialization. There is a growing body of evidence and research pointing to the crisis faced by university classrooms, the shift towards decentralization, and, in the extreme case, the "death of the classroom" or "death of the teacher" in the Iranian university system. Given the inadequate amount of research conducted in this area, the aim of this study was to provide a qualitative description of female students' experiences in relation to their attendance in university classrooms and their overall living condition in this educational and social setting.

Materials & Methods :

The research utilized a qualitative description approach. The study was conducted at Isfahan University, specifically targeting undergraduate female students majoring in sociology. The participants were selected based on three criteria: having enough experience, being female, and studying sociology. The purposive sampling method was employed to select the participants. The data were collected through in-person and online semi-structured interviews and analyzed by using thematic analysis.

Discussion of Results & Conclusion :

In the last one or two decades, Iran's university system has experienced a growing demand for admission, while being driven by global trends. As a consequence, university image and purpose have undergone significant changes. These transformations have had numerous implications for the classroom learning environment and have called into question the traditional meaning, concept, and functions of a university.The findings suggested that the university classrooms predominantly prioritized teacher's role rather than student's involvement. The teaching methods commonly employed in these classrooms were traditional and lacked a problem-solving approach, focusing more on surface learning rather than deep understanding. Many students, due to various reasons, tended to prefer being passive listeners during discussions and only occasionally engaged actively. This lack of participation, along with disinterest and detachment from the classroom environment, could be viewed as a form of resistanceagainst the ineffective nature of the educational system and an attempt to avoid learning. Many students lacked enthusiasm for group work and had a low level of cooperation, as well as sharing of knowledge and experience among each other. Furthermore, the connections between the students that fostered learning were minimal, inconsistent, and primarily non-cognitive. Additionally, the research findings revealed that the students were more content with their teachers’ social qualities of rather than their scientific expertise and teaching methods. This suggested a shift in the students' preferences and expectations in the classroom and towards their instructors.A large majority of students expressed their dissatisfaction with several aspects, such as the outdated nature of the course materials, minimal link between these materials and real-world issues, and lack of learning skills necessary for entering the labor market. Additionally, they found it challenging to comprehend the relevance of classroom subjects, particularly the general ones, to the wider society. This disconnection between the lessons taught and the labor market was prevalent. This demonstrated a significant shift in the purpose of the classroom, leading to the loss of its traditional educational and scientific nature. Furthermore, the job market now required university graduates to have updated skills, prompting students to question the relevance of the classroom to the society and seek knowledge and abilities elsewhere.Briefly, the utopian vision of the classroom had faded away with the crucial focus on learning and motivation being pushed aside. This shift could be attributed to various factors, which were both academic and non-academic factors, including the lack ofjob opportunities for graduates, lack of understanding about the labor market, and a sense of hopelessness. Consequently, the classroom's purpose as a place for the exchange of knowledge, learning, and social interaction had been decentralized with its role now primarily limited to certain social and cultural functions.The findings indicated that the university classrooms had encountered difficulties in serving as effective learning and teaching environments, as well as social spaces, falling short of the students' desired ideal classroom. These problems highlighted the importance of focusing on the changes in students' social and academic lives and utilizing a wider range of methods and ICT technologies outside the traditional classroom setting. This should be done to improve and transform students' learning and increasing the efficiency of higher education.

Adolescents are particularly susceptible to suicidal tendencies. Suicide, the tragic outcome of a process that commences with suicidal thoughts, is a serious concern. Studies indicate that approximately one-third of individuals, who contemplate suicide, will eventually make an attempt on their own lives. Suicidal ideation is a significant predictor for suicide attempts. Various empirical studies have demonstrated a positive correlation between cyberbullying victimization and suicidal behavior. Typically, cyber stalking victims are young with college students being at a heightened risk. This study aimed to investigate the impact of cyber victimization as a stressor on suicidal ideation. To accomplish this objective, the research drew upon two theoretical frameworks: theory of Cohen and Felson's Routine Activities and theory of Robert Agnew's General Strain. According to Cohen and Felson's theory, the presence of three elements—target attractiveness, proximity to motivated offenders, and absence of capable guardians—contributes to criminal behavior and delinquency (in this case, cyber victimization). This theory was employed to explore the factors underlying cyber victimization. Furthermore, Agnew's strain theory posits that cyber victimization serves as a source of strain, leading to the development of negative emotions in individuals. According to this theory, the emergence of negative emotions can precipitate deviant behaviors, such as suicidal ideation and suicide.

This study employed a cross-sectional survey as its research method, utilizing a questionnaire to gather data. The research population comprised all students enrolled at Mazandaran University during the years of 1400-1401. A total of 426 questionnaires were collected and after excluding incomplete or unreliable responses, 400 questionnaires were subjected to analysis. The sampling technique employed in this research was stratified random sampling proportionate to the population size and categorized by gender. The data were analyzed using mean comparison tests and multiple regression with the assistance of SPSS software.

In line with the theory of Routine Activities, criminal incidents occur when three elements converge in time and space: a motivated offender encountering a suitable target in the absence of a capable guardian. Consequently, victimization is elucidated by the convergence of suitability and access to a motivated offender in the absence of a capable protector. The research findings demonstrated that the presence of online target attractiveness, online proximity to motivated offenders, and absence of capable guardians contribute to an escalation in cyber victimization. According to the theory of General Strain, cyber victimization as a source of strain induces negative emotions in individuals. This theory posits that suicide is influenced by an individual's level of strain and his/her capacity to manage it through lawful means. The research results indicated that cyber victimization has a detrimental impact on negative emotions. Furthermore, the findings confirmed that negative emotions have a direct correlation with students' suicidal ideation. Agnew contended that men are more inclined than women to respond to strain with criminal or delinquent behavior. Conversely, women are more prone to exhibit self-destructive behavior in response to strain. The study's results aligned with this assertion, revealing that girls experiencing negative emotions are more likely to have suicidal ideation compared to boys experiencing similar emotions.

Today, one of the crucial factors influencing the occupational, organizational, and socio-cultural developments of industrial companies is the extent to which employees adhere to work ethics. This factor is widely recognized as pivotal to the success of industrial institutions. Therefore, this research aimed to conduct a sociological study on the relationship between social capital and work ethics among the employees of Arsal Goldasht Industrial Company. The theoretical framework of this research drew from the perspectives of influential thinkers, such as Max Weber, Emmanuel Levinas, and experts in the field of social capital, with a primary focus on Jürgen Habermas's theory of communicative action.

This study employed a survey research method, utilizing a questionnaire as the primary data collection tool. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire were assessed using face validity and the Cronbach's alpha technique. The statistical population comprised 400 employees of the company, from which a sample size of 197 individuals was determined using Cochran's statistical formula. The sample was selected through simple random sampling to gather data. The collected information was analyzed using SPSS software.

The research findings revealed a statistically confirmed positive and direct correlation between all components of social capital—social trust, social participation, social support, and social cohesion—and the dependent variable of work ethics. Furthermore, the results of the multivariate regression analysis indicated that the variables in the regression model, namely social trust, social support, social participation, amount of work experience, social cohesion, and age, collectively had the most significant impacts on the employees' work ethics, explaining 48% of the variance in the mentioned variable. In line with Habermas' theoretical framework, the intrusion of economic and political systems, i.e., money and power, was seen as colonizing the life world. In this era of colonialism, authoritarian capitalism seeks to impose its political and economic principles across all facets of society, including family dynamics, workplaces, and distribution of resources. If political principles come to dominate our social existence, the potential for individuals to freely engage with one another based on their own values and norms diminishes, creating barriers to communication and understanding. Habermas proposes that the resolution to these crises lies in rebalancing the world. This rebalancing can be achieved by expanding the public sphere in both political and economic realms, thereby creating room for communicative action. In essence, Habermas believes that the solution to this issue lies in rationalizing both the life world and the system in their respective domains. This entails allowing the system and its structures to become more distinct and intricate, while simultaneously refining the life world to enable free communication and emergence of stronger arguments. Indeed, rationalizing both the life world and the system should facilitate their mutual enhancement rather than causing a negative impact on each other. A more rational system should promote rationality in the life world and this rationality, in turn, should be utilized to comprehend the more rational methods of the system. Ultimately, Habermas introduces the ideal speech situation as the ultimate criterion of truth. In his philosophy, this ideal speech situation represents a theoretical scenario where differences and conflicts are logically discussed through communicative rationality, devoid of domination, under completely equal and unlimited discourse conditions. People must acknowledge their differences in order to reconcile them through dialogue. Essentially, the further we move away from coercive communication conditions, the more dynamic and healthy our society becomes. Therefore, in line with Habermas' theory of communicative action, establishment of a global environment where employees can interact and converse free from systemic constraints and where a minimum of Habermas' ideal speech situation is realized can significantly impact the work ethics and performance of employees by facilitating their access to networks of interaction, participation, agreement, and cohesion (social capital).

Through the utilization of a meta-analysis approach, the present study aimed to assess the collective findings of research conducted in the past two decades regarding the relationship between social capital and economic development in Iran. A preliminary examination of the existing literature within this domain revealed the presence of contradictions and disparities. While certain studies indicated a positive correlation between social capital and economic development, others had yielded contradictory outcomes, demonstrating negative correlations between these two variables. Consequently, the need for a meta-analysis arose. To prevent the conflation of levels of analysis and the associated fallacies, this study solely concentrated on intermediate levels of analysis when defining concepts and selecting studies that considered both social variables of capital and economic development.

The research employed the meta-analysis method, a systematic approach that integrates the findings of multiple studies and applies targeted statistical methods to derive new and consistent results. The unit of analysis for this study was scientific research articles obtained from bibliographic databases. The statistical population consisted of articles that explored the correlation between social capital and economic development. The research was specifically focused on Persian studies conducted within Iran over the past two decades. This temporal limitation was implemented to emphasize the most recent findings within the field of inquiry, while the spatial limitation aimed to narrow the research problem to the relationship between the two variables within Iran. Due to the strict inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis, the research encountered sampling limitations. Initially, an extensive keyword search yielded 85 relevant articles. Among these, 27 articles were purely theoretical and 9 articles employed non-statistical methods. The remaining articles either did not provide the necessary statistics or utilized statistical approaches that did not conform to the criteria for meta-analysis. Consequently, out of the 36 articles that utilized statistical tests, only 13 met the inclusion criteria for the meta-analysis.

After thoroughly examining and extracting the necessary data from each study, we initially investigated the presence of publication bias. To accomplish this, we employed funnel plots, Begg and Mazumdar’s tests, and Egger's regression intercept. The results of these tests indicated the absence of publication bias. Subsequently, we assessed the assumption of homogeneity, which revealed heterogeneity among the studies. Thus, a model of random effects was employed to calculate the overall effect size. According to Cohen's interpretation system, the overall effect size was determined to be 0.304, indicating a moderate relationship between social capital and economic development.In the subsequent stage of the meta-analysis, we explored the moderating variables that potentially contributed to the heterogeneity of the results. This exploration involved a comprehensive review and comparison of the included studies. Three moderatingvariables, namely "publication year", "research method", and "operationalization of social capital" were incorporated into the model. All three variables significantly influenced the identification of heterogeneity among the studies. However, it became evident that these variables were not independent of one another. In general, studies that emphasized social trust and cooperation among local groups when measuring social capital reported an inverse relationship between social capital and economic development. Conversely, studies that emphasized institutional trust and the potential for participation in social institutions and organizations in addition to group trust when operationalizing the variable of social capital indicated a positive correlation between the aforementioned variables. Therefore, based on our examination of the moderating variables and the obtained results, we proposed a new hypothesis: the disparity in research outcomes stems from the emphasis on different dimensions of social capital. While a specific definition of social capital that highlights trust within local groups is often perceived as an obstacle to development, an alternative definition of the same concept that focuses on individuals' participation in non-traditional institutions promotes development.