پژوهش نامه تاریخ اسلام
سال دوازدهم شماره 48 (زمستان 1401)

Khorasan witnessed the presence of political, ethnic and religious groups in the first Islamic centuries. Kharijites were one of the relatively influential groups in Khorasan. They found influence and prevalence mostly in places where the weakness of the Umayyad and Abbasid rule is visible there. Therefore, Khorasan had favorable conditions for their presence and activities. The most important issue of this research is to explain the contexts and factors that caused the presence of Kharijites in Khorasan and their influence on the emergence of anti-Umayyad and Abbasid movements and revolts. This research is based on original historical sources and is organized with a descriptive-analytical method. The findings of the article show that factors such as the migration of Arab tribes to Khorasan, the pressure of the Umayyad rulers on the Kharijites in Iraq, the vicinity of Khorasan to the Active foci of the Kharijites in the southeast of Iran, the distance from the Capital of the Islamic Caliphate and the dissatisfaction of the people of Khorasan with the Umayyad and Abbasid rulers caused the formation of some Kharijites movements in Khorasan. It also seems that the presence of the Kharijites in Khorasan was influential in the fall of the Umayyad and the weakening of the authority of the Abbasids in Khorasan.

The 3rd Hijri century (AH) witnessed the rise and spread of various deviant sects, including the ghulāt (extremists) among the Shi'a. The phenomenon of ghulāt experienced a significant rise during the era of Imam Hasan ʿAskarī (a.s.). This article explores the reasons behind the proliferation of ghulāt activities in that period was mentioned and examines the Imam's approach in dealing with them. To achieve this, the present paper investigates the phenomenon of ghulū (exaggeration) during the era of the eleventh Imam and analyzes the methods employed by the Imam to combat it. The research utilizes a historical-Ḥadīth analysis based on the theory of the formation of sects to interpret library data. The findings of the study indicate that the spread of ghulū in the era of Imam ḤasanʿAskarī (a.s.), stemmed from multiple factors, including the disbelief of some Shi'as in the Imamate of Imam ḤasanʿAskarī (a.s.), the political instability of the Abbasid caliphate, the Abbasids' attempts to deviate the Imamiyyah, The impending occultation of the twelfth Imam.

All the conquests of Salah al-Din against the Crusaders were based on the forces that had gathered and became professional during the Zangi period. Usually, researchers ignore this historical continuity in the military and political achievements of Salah al-Din ayyubi. While the first-hand sources are full of historical data that confirm this continuity and doubt the exclusivity of heroism in Salah al-Din. By examining how Atabakan e- Zangi gained power, this research considers Salah al-Din's conquests against the Crusaders as a part of the historical process that began in the zangi period, and Salah al-Din was able to take advantage of that legacy and achieve some victories against the Crusaders. In this article, the chronology and quantitative data of the zangi period until the end of Salah al-Din's rule have been examined and it has been shown that Salah al-Din was able to achieve victories against the crusaders by relying on the zangi legacy in the two dimensions of political concentration in the Levant and iqṭāʿ military forces of the island (Djazirah). And without zangi's legacy, this would not have been possible for him. Therefore, the military superiority of muslims over the crusaders was a historical process. Salah al-Din's victories were also part of this process, and his military achievements were not solely based on individual personality.

Some social strata in Iranian society underwent changes and transformations during the Ilkhanate period of the Mongols. The Sādāt were one of these strata whose value and prestige increased during the Ilkhanate era. The Ilkhans considered the Sādāt as the social elite of the Iranian society and held them in special respect. Sādāt were predominantly Shia, which further endeared them to the Mongols because the Shiites were more trusted by the Mongols than the Sunnis. The attribution of certain miracles to the Sādāt doubled their credibility among the Mongols. This article addresses the question of what special privileges the Sādāt enjoyed during the Ilkhanate period. The present study, using a descriptive-analytical research method and library data collection approach from primary historical sources, examines the social, economic, political, and managerial status of the Sādāt t during the Ilkhanate period of the Mongols. The findings indicated that the Sādāt were exempt from taxes. With the support of the Ilkhanid rulers, they attained important managerial positions and often held responsibilities and benefits related to endowments. After embracing Islam, the Ilkhans sought to get married with the Sādāt, demonstrating their commitment to Islam and portraying themselves as the rightful inheritors of governing authority over Muslims.

Religion is one of the most significant and influential components affecting the insight and method of historiography. Some historians align historical report in accordance with their religious beliefs. By considering the Matla Al-Saadin and Majma-ul-Bahrain, it becomes evident that Kamal al-Din Abd-al-Razzāq Samarqandī (816-887), a historian of the Timurid era, is among the historians whose historical insight has been based on religious components. The basic question of the current study is: what effect did Samarqandī's religious beliefs have on his historical reports? The findings of the current descriptive-analytical approach research indicate that Samarqandī narrated the interpretation of history in the light of religious beliefs in a meaningful way. By using verses of the Quran and religious concepts, he linked Iranian culture with Islamic identity, understanding between Sunnis and Shiites, respect for Sādāt and the Rāshidūn, attention to the thought of God's shadow, connection between religion and politics, providentialism, Islamic Justice and Judiciary have analyzed historical narratives and description of Timurid rulers. Samarqandī has written history with devotion and belief in Timurid tradition; hence, in his historical reports, he justified the rule of the Timurid and gave them religious-political legitimacy.

The constitutional revolution originally started in Tabriz and quickly spread to other parts of Iran and caused other ethnic groups and ethnicities of Iran to participate in its formation and victory. Armenians were among the ethnic groups who had contributions in Iran's constitutionalism. In this revolution, the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktsutyun Party) led by Yeprem Khan stepped in and paved the way for its victory. This research, which was carried out in a descriptive-analytical method and based on library sources and documents, seeks to recognize the role of Armenians and Armenian parties in Iran's constitutionalism. The main question of the current research is what role did the Dashnaktsutyun Party and Armenians play in the process of constitutionalism? Here, the hypothesis is that the Dashnaktsutyun Party and Caucasian Armenians, despite being non-Iranians, spared no effort to bring about the revolution in order to establish freedom and also help their fellow Armenians in Iran, because they believed that Constitutionalism in Iran is for the benefit of all the nations of the region. Dashnaktsutyun introduced the Iranian revolution to Europe through communication with other European libertarian parties. In addition to transferring factional and political experiences, they were able to fulfill the financial resources of parties in Iran through grants and assistance to provide military weapons.