پژوهشنامه مذاهب اسلامی
پیاپی 20 (پاییز و زمستان 1402)

Essential monotheism, also known as the unity of the divine essence (al-tawḥīd al-dhātī), stands as a pivotal tenet within monotheistic discourse. Crafting its formulation is a profound challenge for both mysticism and theology alike. Even subtle alterations in its interpretation and articulation possess the potential to veer away from the pristine monotheism upheld by the Ahl al-Bayt or the Prophet’s Household.Unitary (aḥadī) monotheism and singular (fardānī) monotheism represent two versions of Ibn al-ʿArabī’s conception of monotheism, each depicted uniquely and substantiated through specific proofs. Employing a descriptive-analytic and deductive approach, thisarticle delves into the core of essential unitary (aḥadī) monotheism, offering a distinct reinterpretation of Ibn al-ʿArabī’s perspective separate from singular monotheism. Furthermore, we assess his viewpoint in light of hadiths, conducting analyses of both the terminology and underlying significance of essential unitary monotheism to ascertain its alignment with the teachings of hadiths

A jurisprudential issue addressed by both Shiite and Sunni scholars is whether it is permissible or not to backbite against one’s denominational opponent behind their back. This article adopts the descriptive-analytic method to study the Sunni perspective on the permissibility or impermissibility of backbiting against Shia individuals. Those who permit such backbiting believe that Shias are considered disbelievers due to their denial of the caliphate of the first three caliphs and their cursing and excommunication of the Prophet’s companions. Therefore, since it is permissible to backbite against disbelievers, it is permissible to backbite against Shia individuals. In contrast, those who reject the permissibility of such backbiting rely on the following assumptions: Shias are considered Muslims, those who curse the Prophet’s companions do not necessarily qualify as disbelievers, a general ruling does not necessarily apply to each and every individual, we lack knowledge of the inner states of each individual, it is permissible to perform prayers behind a Shiite imam of congregational prayers, it is impermissible to curse a fellow Muslim, and it is necessary to adhere to moral principles.

A pivotal issue in Islam and Islamic theology revolves around the concept of eternal punishment in Hell. This belief constitutes a cornerstone of Muslim eschatology concerning the afterlife. The Quran unequivocally states that the punishment of disbelievers in Hell is eternal. The term “khulūd” denotes perpetual existence in a particular state, which can be interpreted as an everlasting abode either in Heaven or Hell. Employing a comprehensive library and analytic methodology, this research endeavors to explore the individuals identified by Ashʿarite theologians as destined for eternal damnation in Hell. Beginning with an examination of Quranic verses, recognized as a shared source among all Muslims, we subsequently delve into the perspectives of notable Ashʿarite figures and theologians regarding this matter. Ultimately, our analysis indicates that according to Ashʿarite doctrine, disbelievers are condemned to eternal residence in Hell. Conversely, sinful believers may endure a period of punishment in Hell before ultimately attaining salvation through the intercession of the Prophet.

The issue of abrogation has long been a contentious topic in Quranic exegesis and studies. Early scholars, particularly in hadith literature, broadly defined abrogation as any alteration in a prior ruling. However, contemporary discourse has seen a shift in the understanding of this concept, which paved the way for the rise of skepticisms regarding the Quran. Ayatollah Marefat, in his work al-Tamhīd, initially affirmed the abrogation of twenty Quranic verses, a stance exploited to challenge the Quran. Yet, toward the end of his life, he reconsidered his position, proposing the notion of conditional or preparatory abrogation and ultimately rejecting the idea of legislative abrogation altogether. He even contested the notion of abrogation in the al-Najwā Verse. Marefat's perspective aligns with Sayyid Qutb's interpretation, which views the verse as imparting a pedagogical message to society, unrelated to jurisprudential rulings and thus not constituting legislative abrogation. This article delves into Marefat's and Qutb's perspectives, elucidating Marefat's final stance on abrogation based on Qutb's theory of pedagogical messaging in Quranic verses.

A comparative examination of the theological approach of Abd al-Aziz bin Baz as a former Wahhabi mufti and Osama bin Laden, an influential jihadi leader, provides a clear analysis of the foundations of Wahhabi and Jihadi Salafists regarding interactions with Islamic rulers. Deploying an analytic-descriptive method and collecting library data, this article aims to uncover the theological foundations of interactions with Islamic rulers according to Wahhabi and Jihadi Salafists. In interactions with Islamic rulers, Bin Baz makes recourse to Wahhabi principles to underscore the necessity of full-fledged obedience of the just ruler and forbiddance of disobedience to an unjust ruler. Moreover, he claims that rulers are most knowledgeable of public interests, and thus, politics is an autonomous territory of the ruler where laypeople are not allowed to inquire. However, Bin Laden relies on the Jihadi Salafist principles to show the forbiddance of obedience to unjust rulers and the necessity of armed uprising against them. He believes that the unsafety stemming from the uprising against unjust rulers is a divine punishment for a society that is pleased with the injustice of tyrants. Selective citation of Islamic sources, serious deficiencies in the Wahhabi and Jihadi Salafist intellectual systems regarding governmental affairs have all led to both of these extreme views, where Bin Baz legitimizes tyranny and exonerates unjust rulers, and Bin Laden permitted violence and bloodshed for ousting unjust rulers.

"Taʾwīl" (esoteric interpretation) stands as one of the most intricate Quranic topics. Among contemporary scholars, Ayatollah Javadi Amoli offers a comprehensive exploration of this issue. He argues that in the Quran, the majority of instances where "taʾwīl" is mentioned extend beyond mere linguistic interpretation, conceptual delineation, or explanation. Rather, they delve into the realm of objective external realities, encompassing both worldly matters and the hereafter. Just as exteriors can be measured with exteriors and interiors with interiors, Quranic “taʾwīl” or interpretation can be gauged against the "mother of the book," which serves as the foundational framework for Quranic verses. This innovative perspective suggests that the entirety of the Quran, including its definitive (muḥkam) and ambiguous or metaphorical (mutashābihāt) verses, possesses interpretative depth. These interpretations should be assessed in light of the "mother of the book," with the context of the Day of Resurrection serving as the fulcrum for Quranic interpretation to unfold. Practically, according to this perspective, understanding Quranic interpretation in terms of their references is first the prerogative of God, then those attaining the status of divine providence, and finally, the selected household of the Prophet.

One significant skepticism surrounding God’s existence and attributes arises from the presence of evils, a challenge not only faced by atheists but also by theists. Upon analysis, it becomes apparent that evils in the material world do not reflect any flaws in the divine essence. In fact, there are several reasons behind the human perception of evils. Thus, since evils existentially manifest, they possess inherent goodness, with any perceived flaw being merely a product of human perspective. Evils are perceived in various ways—stemming from conflicts within the material world, as a result of human choices, or due to certain outcomes not aligning with human desires. It is essential to recognize that the overall balance of the universe is not dictated solely by human will and desires; instead, causal necessity governs the events of the world. Humans, through their choices, contribute to this evolutionary course. While evils may not be desirable from a human standpoint, the causal system of the world indicates the permanent agency and power of God, alongside the influence of human free will as a natural entity within this system. Creatures' effects cannot be eliminated from this causal system; thus, evils can be addressed by rectifying one’s individual practices. Moreover, evils are inherent to the material world and are part of divine power within the causal system.

In philosophical discourse, the inquiry into the nature of the soul holds profound importance. This study delves into Fakhr al-Rāzī’s interpretation of the soul's essence. Unlike Avicenna, Fakhr al-Rāzī situates the discussion of the soul beyond the realm of natural sciences, positioning it within theological issues. Furthermore, he delineates a distinct definition of the rational soul, featuring "I" and its referent. However, Fakhr al-Rāzī's depiction of the soul reveals inconsistencies, vacillating between assertions of its immateriality and suggestions of its composite nature, comprising both spirit and body. To reconcile these discrepancies, three potential resolutions are proposed. Firstly, the term "nafs" (soul) in Fakhr al-Rāzī's discourse is used equivocally. Secondly, the soul plays a pivotal role in defining the human essence as the perfection of matter. Thirdly, the inconsistency within Fakhr al-Rāzī's framework can be attributed to his steadfast adherence to religious sources and their doctrinal content.

Unity, unification, and approximation of Islamic denominations are a reformative legacy of the contemporary history of Islamic societies. While the first manifestations of Islamic approximation and unity can be found in the early and medieval Islamic centuries, they were underscored by elites and scholars of the Islamic world in the contemporary era, with significant contributions from religious-political elites. Ayatollah Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani is among the contemporary religious-political elites who exerted tremendous efforts for Islamic unity and unification. This article explores Hashemi Rafsanjani's views and practices regarding the unity and approximation of Islamic denominations before the triumph of the Islamic revolution. The article adopts a descriptive-analytic method and focuses on library studies. While Hashemi had epistemic foundations in mind for the unification and approximation of Islamic denominations, he largely saw approximation as a political project to combat colonial and Western governments. Moreover, the main pivot of Muslim unity for him, like many other religious-political elites particularly since the 1950s, was the problem of Palestine and the Muslim unity to liberate Palestine.

In his book titled (al-Kulaynī wa-taʾwīlātuh al-bāṭiniyya (Al-Kulaynī and his exoteric interpretations), Abdel Fattah al-Khalidi presents a critical analysis of Shiite perspectives. One particular aspect that he identifies as a source of deviation within Shiism is their understanding of monotheism. Al-Khalidi argues that Shias have made an error regarding the unity of divinity, worship, Lordship, and attributes, as they perceive the Ahl al-Bayt (the Prophet's Household) as intermediaries for receiving God's grace. Furthermore, by offering exoteric interpretations of Quranic verses, they construe the divine names as their own Imams, treating them as equivalent to their Imams. In this article, we aim to present an overview of the fundamental concepts of monotheism as understood by both Shiite and Wahhabi perspectives, where the latter is the framework employed by al-Khalidi. Subsequently, we conduct a critical analysis of the principles espoused by Wahhabi ideology. Furthermore, we meticulously scrutinize al-Khalidi's criticisms outlined in his book, revealing that Shiite beliefs are not deviant but rather harmonious with reason and supported by Quranic verses. Consequently, we refute al-Khalidi's allegations against the Shiite viewpoint and his critique of the book al-Kāfī. The claim made by Wahhabis lacks justification as it demonstrates a failure to comprehend the Shia beliefs, or it may be based on a fallacious reasoning. In this study, we employ a method of theological discourse, presenting theoretical and textual arguments to counter al-Khalidi's criticisms.

Ibadism is a vibrant religious denomination in today’s world, poised to endure into the present age. Oman has historically served as the heartland of Ibadism, with key political and religious figures in the country assuming leadership roles within the Ibadi community. Presently, with conducive conditions, Ibadis have the opportunity to solidify their presence across various spheres, particularly in politics and society. This success owes much to King Qaboos, a prominent Ibadi figure in contemporary times and the ruler of Oman. From the outset of his reign, King Qaboos undertook measures to steer Oman out of isolation, modernizing governance and societal norms while respecting religious and cultural traditions. His social and political initiatives were structured within five-year plans, and he notably adopted the slogan "no to confiscation of thoughts" to engage dissenting voices. However, the challenge remains as to how this minority Islamic denomination can safeguard its identity amidst its limited followership. What are the prevailing political and social conditions of Ibadis in the contemporary era, and what factors contribute to their success? This article delves into these questions, drawing upon various sources to analyze Ibadism within the political and social landscape of King Qaboos's reign. It concludes that King Qaboos successfully garnered domestic support for his government while showcasing Oman and Ibadism on the global stage, highlighting their religious, doctrinal, and jurisprudential foundations. Employing a descriptive-analytical approach and utilizing library resources, this article explores the political and social dynamics of Ibadism during King Qaboos's rule.

Islamic scholars, both Shiite and Sunni, concur that intentions are integral to actions categorized as worship. However, there exist divergent perspectives regarding whether intentions contribute to the description of an action as a worship. The prevailing opinion asserts a direct correlation between intentions and acts of worship. Indeed, actions deemed "permissible" (mubāḥ), which are not inherently worshipful, can acquire such status through intentions. Conversely, Salafists, notably Ibn Taymiyya and his adherents, present an alternative viewpoint. They argue that an injunction—whether obligatory or recommended—from the divine legislator is indispensable for an action to be classified as worship. Accordingly, the designation of "worship" is reserved for actions endorsed as obligatory or recommended (mustaḥabb) by the divine legislator.This article explores the perspectives of Muslim scholars on this matter, contending that just as intention plays a crucial role at the "stage of affirmation" (maqām al-ithbāt) in the establishment of worship, it is equally significant at the "stage of subsistence" (maqām al-thubūt). Consequently, certain inherently non-worshipful acts attain the status of worship due to the intentions behind them. Moreover, confining the designation of worship solely to religiously obligatory or recommended actions contradicts Quranic verses, hadiths, and the pronouncements of early Muslim scholars.

Modern individuals find themselves amidst a cacophony of physical and mental disturbances and demands. Our remarkable technologies, while awe-inspiring, often encroach upon the sanctuary of silence. Media serves as a conduit for these disturbances, infiltrating our innermost selves with tumultuous noise. These disruptions transcend mere auditory stimuli, penetrating our minds and inundating them with a relentless stream of entertainment clamor. With each passing hour and day, the uproar of sensational music and mindless entertainment grows, devoid of any true catharsis, only fostering emotional detachment. These distractions infiltrate our ears, seeping into our imagination, knowledge, and emotions, disrupting the very core of our desires and pursuits. Their singular objective? To thwart our journey towards silence. Yet, amidst these upheavals lies the root cause of human suffering and the principal barrier between the human soul and its divine origin. In light of this reality, what steps should be taken?

Repentance, the act of returning from disobedience to God's ruling to obedience, stands as a fundamental tenet in both Judaism and Islam. Khwāja ʿAbd Allāh al-Anṣārī (396-481 AH), a Muslim mystic, categorized it as a stage of mystical wayfaring in his Manāzil al-saʾirīn, while Bahya ibn Paquda, a Jewish mystic of the same era, did so in his al-Hidāya ilā farāʾiḍ al-qulūb. Research conducted through library studies utilizing the descriptive-analytic method reveals that, despite their agreements on the characteristics of repentance, these two mystics differ in their perspectives on its place, elaboration, and categorizations. Khwāja views repentance as the second station of spiritual journeying, rooted in the Quran and transmitted hadiths, and divides it into three degrees based on the wayfarers' levels: lay, elite, and elite of the elite. He posits that the pinnacle of repentance lies in turning away from everything but God. Conversely, ibn Paquda places repentance as the seventh gate out of ten towards divine love, influenced by Islamic sources and supported by reasoning, scripture, and transmitted traditions. He presents a detailed account asserting that genuine repentance arises from reason reigning over desire and the soul's self-assessment.

Stages of spiritual journeying have been the focus of attention in various mystical perspectives. Some contemporary scholars have also referred to these stages using various terms. This research employs the descriptive-analytic method to examine Ali Safaee Haeri’s account of the stages of spiritual wayfaring. It delineates a coherent chain of the stages of spiritual journeying based on his works and considers their corresponding elements within mystical doctrines. This study demonstrates that, according to Safaee, the stages of spiritual wayfaring begin with knowledge grounded in remembrance, contemplation, and reasoning, which facilitate the individual's inner emancipation from habits and biases, leading to the blossoming of love and faith in one’s heart. Love and faith subsequently translate into action, manifested in three dimensions: remembrance of God, obedience to God, and gratitude toward God. Finally, the wayfarer should cultivate humility by navigating through afflictions (ibtilāʾ), helplessness (iḍṭirār), and seeking recourse (iʿtiṣām). Each of these stages aligns with the teachings of practical mysticism, illustrating that Safaee’s perspective on spiritual wayfaring harmonizes with the teachings of practical mysticism and offers significant explanatory power.

Given the proliferation of mystical ideologies worldwide, it is imperative to scrutinize and engage with newly emerged schools of mysticism. Eckankar, also known as the school of the Light and Sound of God, stands as one such burgeoning movement with a considerable following. This article aims to succinctly outline the tenets and doctrines of Eckankar before offering an impartial critique of its philosophy. By examining both its merits and demerits, we seek to ascertain whether Eckankar's spiritual path holds promise in leading individuals towards their ultimate aspirations. Furthermore, we endeavor to discern the distinctions between Eckankar and Islamic mysticism concerning their efficacy in aiding human transcendence. To accomplish this analysis, we employ the library method, drawing from reputable sources on Eckankar and Islamic mysticism. Our evaluation suggests that while Eckankar may exert a certain allure, it ultimately falls short in providing a definitive path towards human perfection. This shortfall is attributed to inconsistencies and contradictions within its teachings, compounded by perceived lack of sincerity among its leadership. In contrast, Islamic mysticism, particularly as guided by the infallible Shiite Imams, offers a coherent and rational framework capable of shepherding earnest seekers towards their spiritual objectives.

Prayer or supplication holds a profound significance within mystical traditions. Mystics contend that the mere verbal articulation or heartfelt yearning in prayer holds limited efficacy in attaining fulfillment without an accompanying disposition. Nevertheless, the reverent essence of prayer or supplication remains affirmed and accepted by religious doctrine. In the journey towards prayer fulfillment, individuals' existential capacities and dispositional states, particularly in relation to divine understanding, serve as crucial factors determining the reception of God's grace. Dispositional want, often described as an inner prayer or, in the lexicon of mystics, as hidden calls, denotes the soul's quest for a level of perfection conducive to receiving divine grace. This stems from the belief that God, inherently abundant in grace, continually bestows His generosity without reservation. As eloquently expressed by Ibn al-ʿArabī, God is abundantly rich in grace. The soul possessing such disposition perceives its prayers as efficacious and fulfilled, as it has the capacity to receive divine grace—devoid of impediments or deficiencies. In this context, the Quran asserts, "and He gave you all that you had asked Him" (Quran 14:34), signifying that God grants desires according to the language of one's disposition. Prayers lacking such disposition, however earnest, may not be fulfilled by God. Yet, an inquiry arises concerning the role of dispositional want: whether the disposition of "fixed entities" (al-aʿyān al-thābita) remains immutable, rendering prayers ineffective, or if God's grace manifests and diffuses in consonance with dispositional states. This study delves into the multifaceted role of prayer or supplication across various stages of existence, elucidating the pivotal role of dispositional desire in prayer fulfillment.

Addressing the issue of redressing damage or loss inflicted on one's possessions or property at the conclusion of their khums year is a crucial concern for businesspeople and merchants. Jurists, particularly later ones, have thoroughly examined various aspects of this issue. This article focuses on the central question: should the loss suffered by individuals during khums calculation be offset or compensated from their capital's profit, or should the khums, or one-fifth of the profit, be paid in full without addressing the loss? Employing a descriptive-analytic approach and scrutinizing the works of Imami jurists, this study identifies compelling reasons advocating for compensating losses from profits, emphasizing the absence of a distinction between loss and damage. It delves into the priority between loss and profit, distinguishing between the loss of the principal capital and profit loss. By evaluating the theories of Imami jurists, it advocates for the view that losses should indeed be compensated. Furthermore, utilizing practical principles such as the presumptions of barāʾa (exemption) and istiṣḥāb (continuity), it contends that losses or damages should be rectified from the profit.

A precise demarcation of crimes deserving punishment is imperative according to Islamic law, essential for the regulation of criminal justice within Islamic society. The delineation between the offenses of "baghy" (insurgence) and "muḥāraba" (waging war) within Islamic jurisprudence, along with the diverse perspectives of jurists on this matter, presents challenges and complexities. To elucidate each crime's nuances and respective legal consequences, a thorough analysis is required. This article employs a descriptive-analytic approach, drawing upon religious texts, evidential examination, and argumentative analysis to distinguish "baghy" and "muḥāraba" from both Shiite and Sunni perspectives. By outlining their similarities and disparities as articulated by Imami and Sunni jurists and Quranic scholars, we assert that "baghy" and "muḥāraba" represent distinct transgressions, notwithstanding their resemblances. "Baghy" entails inciting rebellion against a just Imam or leader, endangering the safety and security of the populace, whereas "muḥāraba" involves intimidating fellow Muslims, pillaging their possessions, and shedding their blood to instill fear and insecurity. Consequently, they carry distinct legal rulings and implications within Islamic jurisprudence.

Roads and their legal setbacks constitute vital components of national infrastructure in every country. The entitlement to traverse these roads may arise either organically or through established conventions on private property. This article delves into the regulations governing roads and setbacks for right of way, examining them through the lens of jurists associated with diverse Islamic denominations. Additionally, it scrutinizes the legislative policies of Iranian law, highlighting existing gaps therein. Consequently, the focus lies on delineating specific criteria for classifying road types and their associated regulations. Our research reveals both similarities and disparities among jurists representing various Islamic denominations concerning road rules and classifications. Furthermore, the legislative policies of Iranian law exhibit deficiencies regarding road regulations and setbacks. To address these gaps effectively, leveraging insights from these discussions can serve to refine existing legal frameworks pertaining to roads and right of way.