reza arjmandzadeh

The persistent drought conditions and the increasing reliance on groundwater resources over the past decades have significantly expanded the areas affected by land subsidence across various regions of the country, leading to substantial damage. To mitigate the impacts of subsidence, a comprehensive and precise understanding of this phenomenon is essential. In recent decades, the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) interferometric technique has emerged as a widely used method for measuring subsidence. This study utilizes field data, including piezometric wells, groundwater level fluctuations during minimum and maximum periods, and exploitation wells, to calculate aquifer discharge rates using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) interpolation. The aim is to analyze the time series of subsidence in the Esfarayen plain. Additionally, radar data from Sentinel-1 images were employed to estimate the subsidence rate during the first eight months of 2023. The findings reveal that subsidence in the study area ranged from 1 to 12 mm over the eight-month period, with 75.2% of the basin area classified as medium to highly critical. This indicates that the Esfarayen plain is in a critical state. The highest levels of water extraction and subsidence were observed in the southern regions of Sankhasat, Kharasha, Arg, Gazan, Jafarabad Kharaba, and Mehdiabad of Kal Beko wells, all of which fall within the highly critical zone. These areas require efficient groundwater management strategies to control and mitigate land subsidence.

At the northeastern end of the Sabzevar ophiolitic zone and the southern edge of the Binalud zone and south of Quchan, a 200 km long young magmatic arc consisting mostly of calc-alkaline to adakitic volcanic-intrusive rocks are exposed which extended to Esfarayen. In the present study, the Shotorsang hypabyssal granitoids in the northeast of Sabzevar and the Binalud structural zone are investigated. No dating data and comprehensive geochemical study of these units have been published, and the origin of hypabyssal units is unclear. Accordingly, new petrographic and geochemical data and U–Pb zircon ages of intermediate-acidic intrusives of Shotorsang in the northeast of Iran are reported.

Geology:

The hypabyssal Shotorsang granitoids, as a part of the magmatic arc in the north of the Sabzevar ophiolitic belt, are located 82 km northeast of Sabzevar and in the Binalud structural zone. Based on the field studies and 1:5000 geological map, the rock units of the Shotorsang area include early Cretaceous limestone, Eocene sedimentary and volcanic rocks, the Miocene hypabyssal stocks and dykes, and new Plio-Quaternary deposits. Intrusive units including dikes and hypabyssal stocks composed of dacite, granodiorite, and quartz monzonite. The dikes with acidic composition crosscut the Eocene sedimentary and volcanic succession.

During the field investigations in the Shotorsang area, 80 samples were taken from most of the geological units, and 40 thin sections were studied by a polarizing microscope for petrographic studies. Six representative and least altered samples from the Shotorsang hypabyssal granitoids were analyzed for major oxides and trace elements using XRF and ICP-MS in the Acme Laboratories (Canada). Two samples from dacite dike and granodiorite stock (samples Ab8 and Ab59) were selected for dating studies according to the suitable size and abundance of zircon crystals.U-Pb dating was conducted by laser ablation-multiple collector-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-MC-ICP-MS) in the Laboratory of Isotope Geology at the Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing, China.

Petrography:

Based on petrographic studies, the Shotorsang hypabyssal units can be divided into three groups including granodiorite and quartz monzonite stocks as well as dacite dikes. The granodiorite is composed mainly of quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase, hornblende, and biotite with accessory zircon, sphene, and apatite. This unit dominantly displays a porphyritic to glomeroporphyric texture.Dacite dikes have mineralogical and textural similarities with those of the granite stocks. Mineralogically, these units include quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase, biotite, and hornblende with a felsitic porphyry texture.Magmatic fluids released during the intrusion of quartz monzonite bodies are the main factor for skarnization in the area.

Geochemistry:

On the total alkali-silica diagram (Middlemost, 1985), the intrusive bodies and dikes are plotted in the fields of quartz monzonite, granodiorite, and granite, which is consistent with their petrographic observations. On the SiO2 versus K2O discrimination diagram (Peccerillo and Taylor, 1976), the Shotorsang hypabyssal granitoids fall mainly in the medium- to high-K calc-alkaline domains. On chondrite and primitive mantle-normalized diagrams, the investigated samples display enrichment in LILE and LREE and depletion in HFSE and HREE.On Rb versus Nb+Y tectonomagmatic discrimination diagram (Pearce et al., 1984), the Shotorsang hypabyssal granitoids are plotted in volcanic arc granite field.U-Pb datingThe two samples from the dacitic dike and granodioritic stock yielded zircon U-Pb ages of 22.52±0.38 and 22.56±0.35 Ma, respectively. The Th/U ratio for zircons from the dacitic dike and granodioritic stock is more than 0.1, which is different from metamorphic zircons and compatible with magmatic zircons.

The remarkable geochemical criteria of hypabyssal Shotorsang granitoids are Sr (382.5-607 ppm), high Sr/Y ratios (26.4-62.5), LaN/YbN (9.5-17.1). The low values of Y (9.7-16.3) and HREE are similar to those of adakites. The low values of Yb and Y, and high ratios of Sr/Y, as well as La/Yb, could be attributed to the presence of residual garnet and hornblende or as fractionated minerals.The LILE (large-ion lithophile elements) enrichment and HFSE (high-field strength elements) depletion are typical features of calc-alkaline magmas related to subduction zones, which originated from partial melting of a subducted oceanic slab or a supra-subduction mantle wedge.The lack of Eu anomaly in adakites, as well as the Shotorsang hypabyssal granitoids with abundant plagioclases, is related to magma ƒO2. Under oxidizing conditions, Eu occurs dominantly as Eu3+, leaving lesser Eu2+ to be incorporated into plagioclase.There are evident changes in Sr-Nd isotopic ratios of the magmatic rocks of the northern Sabzevar ophiolitic belt, and it seems that the (87Sr/86Sr)i ratios increase, however, the εNdi values decrease from the old to the young rocks, which likely indicates the effect of the crustal materials on the source magma.It can be inferred that the Cretaceous-Paleocene magmatism is subduction-related, and from Eocene onwards, the igneous rocks of this zone, including the Miocene Shotorsang adakites with an age of 22.5 million years, have a post-collisional nature.

The Shotorsang hypabyssal granitoids, as a part of the magmatic arc of the northern Sabzevar ophiolitic belt, formed as dike and stock with dominantly porphyritic textures and intruded the Cretaceous-Eocene volcano-sedimentary succession. The two samples from the dacitic dike and granodioritic stock yielded zircon U-Pb ages of 22.52±0.38 Ma and 22.56±0.35 Ma, respectively, indicating the importance of Miocene time in iron mineralization in this zone. The geochemical features of the Shotorsang hypabyssal granitoids correspond to the field of post-collisional volcanic arc rocks (VAG) and possess similarities with those of the adakitic rocks, originating from the subducting slab.These rocks probably have an eclogite or amphibolite garnet origin resulting from the metamorphism of the Sabzevar Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere, which was subducted under the Alborz zone.

Caves are suitable places for recognizing the inner layers of the earth in which tectonic activities of the earth can be observed. Regarding the origin of the caves, the prevailing view has been the superiority of the role of dissolving the rocks. Books, articles, reports, geological maps, aerial photographs and satellite images for basic studies were used. The research method was based on field research, extent library, direct observation and measurement. GPS was used to obtain the mathematical coordinates of the mouth of caves, relative position and the route map. From VNIR images of ASTER sensor of TERRA satellite, which has a suitable spatial resolution of 15 meters and has Geology and Landuse-Landcover applications for discovering the relationship of caves with fault tectonics, identifying and detection of faults were used; From remote sensing techniques, image enhancement such as using Edgesenh Linear filter and Stretching by Histogram Equalization method were used. The compass was used to measurement the slope and extension of layers and faults, fold hinge, axial plate effect as well as orientation inside caves. From laser meter for estimate the distance and dimensions was used. A water test tube was used for water sampling. Plastic with zippers was used to place samples of stones, skeletons, fossils, etc. A questionnaire, checklist and identity card were used to record the characteristics of each cave. In addition, the wireless device was used to find team members, express the situation and inform each other. Findings and Considering the researchers opinions and concurrences, this section has been analyzed and discussed in three dimensions: A) Sedimentary-structural features: Field studies, interpretation of geological maps and existing formations of each of the caves showed that North Khorasan in terms of sedimentary-structural features in the two zones of Kopet-dagh-Hezarmasjed and Aladagh-Binalood (Eastern Alborz) has expanded; The largest area is related to the Kopet-dagh-Hezarmasjed zone in the northern half of the province. That Kopet-dagh mountain range corresponds to Kopet-dagh-Hezarmasjed zone and Aladagh mountain range corresponds to Aladagh-Binalood zone. These two mountain ranges, despite the similarity in the construction process, have undergone different geological evolution. Most of the caves of this province (Bidak, Yayjat, Poostinduz, Kafar ghaleh, Ostad and Konehgarm) have been formed and developed in a clear orbitolithic calcareous formation called Tirgan (Ktr). From this perspective, limestone and dolomitic limestone called Lar Formation in Binalood zone (Eastern Alborz) (Jl) is in the second place and Armadloo, Kaftarak, Siahkhaneh and Gesk caves have been formed and developed in this formation. Gomnamane-Salug and Ganjkooh caves have also developed in light to pink limestone and dolomitic limestone called Mozdoran Formation in Kopet-dagh zone (JKmz).B) Structural features: Structural evidences such as marbled rocks, fragmentation, displacement and discontinuity in the vicinity of the fault plane, possession of aragonite mineral, evidences of occurrence of major slope-slip, strike-slip ,combined faults and slip on the bedding plane, etc., indicate the superiority of the role of fault tectonics in caves formation and development. The Yayjat, Armadloo, Kafar ghaleh, Ostad, Siahkhaneh, Gesk and Noshirvan caves, due to normal slippery fault, The Khazinehrah, Kaftark and Ganjkooh caves, due to slippery fault, Poostinduz cave, due to reverse slippery fault and faulting on the bedding plane, Bidak cave, due to oblique thrust fault, Gomnamane-Salug cave, due to reverse fault and Noshirvan cave, due to thrust fault have been formed. C) Morphogenetics and the role of tectonics in the formation of caves: North Khorasan province caves by one of the six mechanisms were evolved.1. The Bidak, Gomnamane-Salug, Armadloo and Gesk caves have been formed due to fault tectonics and dissolution with fault superiority.2. The Kaftarak and Ganjkooh caves were formed due to fault tectonics and dissolution with dissolution superiority.3. The Yayjat and Ostad caves were created due to faulting and fault surface opening.4. The Poostinduz and Konehgarm caves have been formed due to flexural-slip folding. 5. In the formation of the initial and final forms of Kafar ghaleh cave, the tectonic in the form of uplifting and neutral-surface folding mechanism has played a major role.6. The Khazinehrah cave due to the dissolution of evaporative sediments along the joint system and microfaults has evolved.7. The caves of Siahkhaneh and Noshirvan have natural and handmade origin.8. The caves of Honameh and Babaghodrat are considered handmade.In the formation and development of caves in North Khorasan province, seven factors Included: fault tectonics and dissolution with faulting superiority, fault tectonics and dissolution with dissolution superiority, faulting and fault surface opening, flexural-slip folding, neutral-surface folding and uplifting, dissolution along the joint system and micro-faults, natural and human and purely human factors have been effective, But the role of fault tectonics has a special advantage over dissolution.Examination of cross section and profile of caves showed that in each cave where tectonic processes and faults have played a major role in its formation and development, its profile is irregular and has a classification. Existing studies have shown that the terms cave and karst are not equal to each other due to their nature and how they are formed and developed, and there is a difference between them and not necessarily every cave is karst.Due to the climatic conditions of North Khorasan region and the relative limitation of rainfall, many limestones do not have karst features and what is seen today as karst phenomena in this area, Except in a few cases, they are the result of Quaternary rainy periods.Due to the tectonic origin of most caves in North Khorasan province, they can be used as indicators and Neotectonic evidence in the region.Due to the high potential for falling, Konehgarm cave is considered as 1st degree with no access and Kafar ghaleh cave is 2nd degree with limited access.Field studies and subsequent reviews indicate the large number of caves in North Khorasan province, which due to time, financial and technical constraints, only 16 caves were carefully studied and it is better to study the others at a more appropriate time.

Caves play an important role in human habitation, geotourism and groundwater supply. In addition, they have biodiversity, tectonic evidence, fossil artifacts and archaeological significance. Caves have also been used for fun and worship. Unique phenomena, fossils, archeological artifacts and unique wildlife in the caves have made them important tourism attractions with high economic value. Caves are also considered as one of the oldest geotourist sites. Today, cave tourism encompasses a wide range of activities, from watch the scenery to see the wildlife, professional exploration and caving.

Research materials was books, articles, reports and visual documents. The research method was based on field study, direct observation, measurement and to some extent library. Mathematical, relative and elevation position, distribution, distance and access, geological status, genetic characteristics, topography and geomorphology condition, spatial dimensions, geohydrological aspects, biological characteristics, geotouristic status, stone caves and existing dissolution forms, archaeological aspects, existing fossils and their safety and protection aspects of the studied caves were investigated. Based on the instructions for protection and exploitation of caves, how to protect and exploit each of them was determined and graded each from a protection perspective and their privacy were introduced. In order to accurately measurement the geological structures and geometry of caves, a compass device and to estimate the distance and dimensions of the interior space of the caves laser meter was used. For sampling the water accumulated in the caves a water test tube and to place samples of rocks, fossils, etc zipped plastic was used. A questionnaire, checklist and identity card were used to record the characteristics of each caves.

A total of 16 caves were surveyed, most of which are located in Bojnourd and Esfarayen due to geological and climatic conditions, and 19 new caves were discovered in North Khorasan Province; Who need field visits and study10 caves have formed in the middle part of the province, which has more rainfall and lower temperature; Which indicates the effect of the climatic factor of altitude in the formation of some caves in this province. Also, 10 caves have been created in the eastern half of the province, which shows the superiority of the fault tectonic role than dissolution in this part.Due to the often calcareous lithology, mountain topography and mechanical destruction, finding the mouth of most caves is difficult. For this purpose, their mathematical and altitude coordinates were obtained and recorded with GPS.The mouths of caves have not developed in a specific direction of the slope. In shady slopes (ubac), the process of physical destruction and in sunny slopes (adret), mechanical degradation and tectonic fault processes have played a role in creating and expanding the mouths of caves. 9 caves are located at an altitude of 1000 to 1500 meters, which often matches with the limb of the anticlines, and tectonics has caused the greatest pressure and shearing stress to occur on the limb of the folds.8 caves have horizontal entrance corridors, that 7 cases have been formed and developed on the fault surface and in 7 of the caves without horizontal entrance corridors, the mouth corresponds to the fault surface. 7 caves have halls, that 6 cases have been formed and developed on the fault plate.6 caves of the province have been formed and developed in the light orbitolina limestone called Tirgan. Limestone and dolomitic limestone known as Lar Formation in the eastern Alborz zone (Binalood), is in second place. Marbled rocks, crushing, displacement and discontinuity in the vicinity of the fault plate, having aragonite rock, presence of breccia (It) and fault gouge, occurrence of main fault in the interior space of the cave, presence of transverse faults perpendicular to the main fault and presence of alternating faults along the length of most of the existing caves, indicate the superiority of the fault tectonics than dissolution process in the formation and development of caves. In terms of antiquity of the formations, dissolved spaces and evolved dissolution forms, the Gomnamane-Salug, Armadloo, Kaftarake-Daragh, Gesk and Ganjkooh caves are old and other caves are young.In the formation and development of most caves in North Khorasan province, fault tectonics and dissolution have played a role with the superiority of faulting; Which corresponds to the tectonic position of Kopet-dagh zone and the northern Khorasan region.There are 10 wet caves and 6 dry caves without dissolution process.There is water only in the caves of Siahkhaneh and Ganjkooh. Parameters affecting the chemical quality of drinking water such as PH, EC, temperature, nitrate, sulfate, chloride, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, total alkalinity, carbonate and bicarbonate were tested. The water of the Siahkhaneh cave is relatively light and suitable for good drinking. The water PH of Ganjkooh cave is neutral and is around 7.6 and it is generally known as a light water and very suitable for drinking.The caves of Gomnamane-Salug, Poostinduz, Honameh, Kafar Ghaleh, Siahkhaneh, Babaghodrat and Noshirvan have no bats and the rest have bats.The investment is done in the handmade collection caves of Honameh and Babaghodrat, but it needs more investment while preserving these natural and historical heritages. Bidak, Gomnamane-Salug, Armadloo, Kaftarake-Daragh, Gesk, Konehgarm and Ganjkooh have typical dissolution forms and need more protection.The entrance of Bidak, Yayjat, Armadloo, Kafar Ghaleh, Gesk, Konehgarm and Ganjkooh caves is in the form of wells or looks like a natural well; and must be entered with a static rope and harness.Apart from Babaghodrat and Noshirvan caves, there is a possibility of wild animals in other caves, of which wolves and leopards are the predominant animal species, respectively. In Armadloo cave, due to its proximity to Golestan National Park, the presence of bears is possible.Kafar Ghaleh and Konehgarm caves are completely unstable and are not suitable for nature tourists, and Konehgarm cave is 1st degree type with forbidden access.The caves of Gesk and Konehgarm have a high great depth of movement and the caves of Bidak, Armadloo, Poostinduz and Kafar Ghaleh have a great depth of movement.Bidak, Gomnamane-Salug, Armadloo, Kaftarake-Daragh, Honameh, Babaghodrat, Gesk, Konehgarm and Ganjkooh caves have a very protective value due to their beautiful dissolution forms and their vulnerability and fragility.

Honameh and Babaghodrat caves are handmade, Siahkhaneh and Noshirvan are natural-handmade and 12 other items are natural, the role of fault tectonics is more prominent than the dissolution action. Chemically, the accumulated water in Ganjkooh cave is light and very suitable and in Siahkhaneh cave is similar to surface waters, good, relatively light and suitable for drinking. These caves are formed in Tirgan, Mozduran, Shurijeh, Lar and Pliocene conglomerate. The caves of Honameh, Kafar Qaleh, Babaghodrat and Gesk have archeological importance. 9 of them have bats. Gesk and Konehgarm caves are the deepest and most technical, Konehgarm cave is 1st degree type with forbidden access.

The Chah-Shaljami polymetal ore deposit contains heavy metal anomalies in various mineralization zones. Geochemical distribution and correlation of elements in surficial soilsindicate that sulfide, sulfate, sulfosalt and silicate mineral occurrences (e.g. Pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, molybdenite, enargite, hornblend and biotite) in mineralization and stockwork zones resulted in the strong correlation between some elements such as Fe, Mn, Mg, Ni, Pb, Zn, Cr, Sn. In addition, there is a relatively strong correlation between Cd, Ti, Ba, Al which may be related to the vein-veinlets and the intrusives. Contamination indexes (enrichment factor, geoaccumulation index (Igeo), contamination factor and modified contamination degree) were used to assess the soil and sediment enrichment in Chah-Shaljami ore deposit. These indexes indicate enrichment of S, Sb, Mn, Pb. Sulfide, sulfate and sulfosalt minerals cause strong sulfur enrichment. Cadmium is weakly contaminated as can be inferred from its paragenetic association with Pb-Zn minerals in polymetal ore deposits.

The Quchan fault is located in Quchan - Shirvan area which is a part of Chenaran- Bojnourd plain in Kopeh-Dagh zone, NE Iran. The Quchan active fault with northwest – southeast trending is one of the most important strike-slip faults in the area which its activity led to the numerous historical and instrumental earthquakes. The Neo-tectonic activities of this fault are investigated by the drainage patterns, displacement of the waterways, the impact on the alluvial fan deposits and the Quaternary sediments cutting. Here, we aim to employ instrumental seismicity along with satellite imagery data, thermal images, shuttle radar topography mission (SRTM) data plus field observations to explain the mechanism and active tectonics of the southeast Quchan fault termination. Processing Landsat-8 image synchronous with the maximum micro-seismic occurrences reveals that thermal anomaly is positive and corresponds to the major lineaments. Thermal anomaly images have also revealed three hidden faults which have not yet been distinguished in the field surveys. The continuous strike slip activity of the Quchan fault over the time resulted in the formation of compression zone and new thrusts along the southeastern end. By continuance of thrust activity, the anticline starts to accrete and the older thrusts are covered with folding sedimentary rocks, thus thrust loader continues until now. This research is the first successful attempt in Iran to detect hidden active faults and investigate fault termination by employing satellite thermal surveys.

In the study were analyzed the salts of Dehkoyeh and Karmostaj salt dome(separated based on color), and gypsum of Paskhand salt dome in Larestan region in Fars Province, which is performed in Iran for the first time. The discovery of Sassolite (B(OH)3) and Globerite (Na2Ca(SO4)2) salts (reported in Hormuz Salt Formation for the first time) following mineralogical studies confirm the efficient role of seabed fumaroles in Hormuz salt formation during Infra-Cambrian time. According to geochemical study, strontium is the most abundant trace element and with anhydrite and gypsum. Generally, iron has put the greatest impact on the changes of salt color from among all the elements. In gypsum, salinity changes between 9.7 wt% to 25.3 wt% of NaCl and homogenization temperatures vary between 78.5°C to 230°C. On this basis, Through the study of fluid inclusion data in the Sassolite and Globerite (Na2Ca(SO4)2) minerals, high temperature of 50°C to 60°C were identified. gypsum formation has probably occurred as a result of a secondary process and non-sediment (hydrothermal) processes. The high-temperature fluid has probably originated from the primary evaporative basin as a result of submarine hot solution (fumarole) activities forming the evaporative basin salts. In all probability this fumarole of suppliers ions needed was salt formation and the emergence of large volumes of Hormuz in a relatively short time to justify their salts.