کانت

Non-intentional and immediate awareness has no already relationship with the other. While freedom is always related to others and not having a relationship with others does not fundamentally interfere with freedom. Therefore, freedom is never a question of knowledge. Consciousness in itself and for itself independently and unmediated by external objects internally projects its objectivity. This consciousness-based approach basically does not look outside itself, that is, it finds the origin and idea of ​​truth inside and without the mediation of others. The other is a competitor of freedom in all its forms in the sense that it does not allow any linguistic articulation to form outside its limits and swallows all the illusory elements of self-foundation. At the same time, there is no other way than facing the other towards a kind of reflexive awareness and knowing oneself as an ego. In addition, the link between freedom and moral responsibility is one of the most fundamental and long-standing topics of ethics, which establishes a link between the subject, the other, and agency. Kant's transcendental freedom constructs space as a support for empirical freedom and as a condition for the possibility of experiencing freedom. From this point of view, transcendental and unconscious freedom play the same role in relation to moral responsibility.

The attribution and perception of beauty in the phenomena of existence have consistently been one of the most intriguing and challenging subjects throughout the history of human intellectual thought. Philosophizing, with its diverse tools and approaches, has been and remains one of the primary avenues for addressing this issue. Among the philosophers who have made significant contributions to the study of beauty, its essence, and its underlying causes, Immanuel Kant stands out. His notion of "disinterested pleasure" in encountering the beautiful, elaborated in Critique of Judgment, is one of his most profound philosophical reflections. In recent decades, the accelerated growth of empirical sciences, particularly neuroscience, has led scientists to explore scientific understandings of shared topics between the humanities, arts, and their own disciplines—including beauty and the pleasure it evokes. Their research has yielded notable findings, which, alongside observed parallels, have facilitated interdisciplinary studies bridging philosophy and cognitive sciences. This essay presents a descriptive and analytical examination of Kantian disinterested aesthetic pleasure and the explanations offered by cognitive sciences. The study reveals that despite the complexity of this relationship, the distinction between "wanting" and "liking" within the brain’s reward system enables the possibility of disinterested pleasure in the Kantian sense.

In the Modern age, dealing with epistemological issues was at the center of attention. For Kant, epistemology was also the main concern, but what distinguishes Kant from his predecessors in addressing epistemological issues is that before presenting his epistemological theory, he prioritized the knowledge of the mind and its functional structure. What distinguishes Kant about the mind is a theory that is referred to as the Copernican revolution. According to this theory, the relationship between mind and the object is different from what was inherited from the past, and the mind, as the agent of knowledge, affects the object. The central issue of the current research is to address the challenge of whether Kant, through his Copernican revolution regarding human understanding, served this concern in the framework of the epistemic assumptions of the modern era, which sought to display the mechanism of the possibility of knowledge by relying on "justified true belief." In this research, the aim is to investigate the mentioned problem with a descriptive-analytical method. With a critical approach and focusing on Kant's works, the author has come to the conclusion that Kant's view of the mind has not served the epistemological concern of the modern era and the possibility of knowledge, which has been prevalent in epistemology from the era of Plato to the twentieth century, and in fact suffers from a kind of internal inconsistency and, in a way, leads to giving up and ignoring the inherent human desire to know.

The conventional interpretation of Kant's critical philosophy, which emphasizes his response to Hume's empiricism and delineates the limits of knowledge, overlooks this crucial point that Kant's entire thought cannot be fully examined without considering his concern for conceptualizing the noumenal world and its relation to the phenomenal world. Contrary to the tenets of the Enlightenment, Kant grappled with Swedenborg's mystical experiences, realizing that the phenomenal indeterminacy of the object of such experiences does not negate their possibility of existence and significance. This recognition compelled Kant to integrate the formulation of the noumenal world and its connection to the phenomenal world within his critical system. Despite strong denials, one could argue that the influence of Swedenborg's thought on the overall structure and some of Kant's ideas and concepts is notable enough to raise questions about the similarities between his system and that of the great Swedish mystic. This inquiry, using a hermeneutic approach, invokes Swedenborgian teachings, concepts, and terminologies in comparison with elements of critical philosophy, highlighting both similarities and differences. Among the notable similarities are the distinctions and correlations between the phenomenal and noumenal worlds, the subjectivity of the concepts of space and time, the proportionality of actions to the moral law as a primary condition for attaining the highest good, and the concept of the kingdom of ends. While these parallels may reflect the depth of the influence of Swedenborgian experiences on the Kantian system or the possibility of a shared origin, they do not undermine the originality of Kant's philosophy.

Emile Durkheim's positivist sociology can be understood within the framework of Kant's transcendental idealism, contrary to the common misconception in our scientific community that Durkheim's positivism is merely an extension of empiricism. Durkheim critiques empiricism and the narratives of British positivism, while simultaneously formulating the subject of sociology—social reality—under the concept of "collective representation." The notion of "representation" is rooted in the Copernican revolution and Kant's transcendental idealism. Influenced by the 19th-century French neo-Kantian philosopher Renouvier, Durkheim considers the concept of representation as foundational to sociological knowledge. Thus, Durkheim's positivism emphasizes not just the empirical approach, but also the experiential context within the Kantian framework. The objectivity of Durkheim's sociology is realized through the process of positioning in the Kantian sense.

Regarding the motivation for moral actions, three scenarios are conceivable. Moral behavior arising from an individual's internal drive or from an external factor is termed autonomy and heteronomy respectively. The third scenario known as the “submission to wilāyah” or “divine submission” is presented. This third state, while enabling man to become self-sustained in terms of autonomy, frees him from heteronomy and establishes him as a follower of divine guidance (wilāyah). Kant, the proponent of the theory of autonomy, centers humanity as the ultimate purpose and asserts the independence and intrinsic freedom of reason and will from any causal system. This study employs an analytical-critical method to explore Kant’s principle of autonomy in light of the themes of divine submission in the Quran and al-Ṣaḥīfa al-Sajjādiyya, aiming to highlight similarities and differences between Kant’s view and the Quranic perspective of submission to wilāyah and divine guidance. The findings reveal that both perspectives reject internal motivations inconsistent with reason and domination by external factors other than God. However, their differences include Kant's belief in the sufficiency and authority of rational will, individualism, prioritization of self-understanding, the promotion of moral plurality, the neglect and denial of divine submission themes, and the impossibility of practically achieving true autonomy.

The aim of the current research is to critically investigate and compare Kant's philosophy with the fundamental issues of public rights in Kant's philosophy, including State and Freedom. The research method hired here is descriptive-analytical and the results finally have depicted that for Kant, the idea of law is a fundamental part of his political philosophy. Law was considered as a concept representing the principle of validity in his regards. Therefore, Law is preconceived as a concept of the human mind so that sucha concept cannot be inferred from any external experience. Instead, the human mind discovers it as a necessary condition without which nothing can be properly explainedor understood. Although, “Law” is known by different names and lexicon in different branches of philosophy. Regarding the foundations of State legitimacy from Kant's point of view, it can be elaborated that Kant's desired political system, as he referred it to a republic, as system that is based on the former principles of wisdom such as freedom, independence and equality, moreover, the laws and the issue of their legitimacy in this system are under a decisive position, which has a deep connection with the concept of right that arose from Kant's moral philosophy. The system of representation and the principle of separation of powers are two other basic components of Kant's republican system, which along with the constitution tries to keep the political society safe from tyranny and protect the principles of freedom, equality and independence. Thus, according to Kant’s idea, laws and principlesof public law are all a means guaranteeing the freedom and rights of individualsfrom the “State”. Laws aforementioned, are also effective in realizing a fair and complete administration within a state. In this context, Kant supports the form of the republic in the Constitution. In the context of securing freedom at the level of international relations,Kant assigns duties to the government and states so such type of freedom should be corresponded according to the political laws of a republic state based on crucial political elements. The freedom mentioned, outside the borders is called universal rights. In general, Kant's political philosophy is compatible with the acceptance of various types oflaws. Emerging from natural rights, moral, political, and international rights, including international rights, are holistically and theoretically related to each other.

One of the issues that has preoccupied the human mind from the beginning and has instinctively sought an answer to is the expression of the relationship between phenomena. Each philosopher, according to their own foundations, perspectives, and different theories, has discussed and attempted to answer it. These discussions are usually gathered under the topic of causality. In this article, the author has tried to use the library method to, after stating the general preliminary foundations, conduct a comparative study of the views of two of the world’s great philosophers, namely Immanuel Kant and Sadra al-Din Shirazi. Ultimately, the writer concludes that Kant, given his cognitive view and mental structure, speaks of causality as one of the categories of understanding and mind, and Mulla Sadra, given the realistic view that he has set as his intellectual background, presents causality as a real relationship between longitudinal levels in the form of hierarchical existence. 

The present analyzes Kant's subjectivist understanding of the concept of the event in the way aesthetic judgments are issued under the aesthetic experience. Heidegger returns to the original position of Ereignis or event in the way of finding the question about understanding the inner foundations of language. An event is a situation in which language reveals itself through speech and speaks about itself, and in this way, other beings also enter the field of presence. But in Kant, the subjectivist view of the event is revealed in the free play between imagination and understanding. Kant does not directly use the concept of event in explaining the beautiful thing. However, the examination of his view on the validity of aesthetic judgments indicates the cognitive interaction between understanding and imagination, which beyond epistemological rules and foundations is revealed in a general, necessary, and universal way in the situation of the event. From Kant's point of view, because the understanding is faced with difficulties in how to issue reflective judgments, and the understanding lacks prior categories that can formulate the sensory impressions contained in the imagination, therefore, the issuing of judgments outside of the cognitive rules is manifested in an event-like way. The subject goes beyond their subjectivity in relation to the object to beyond the object at the moment of encounter, they interact through the event of the game. It is the first interaction of the subject with the world and then the free play between imagination and understanding.

One of the most important answers to the problem of moral evil is the free will defense, which is subject to severe challenges. The lack of a necessary connection between free will and moral evils, as well as the injustice in granting human beings the mental capacity to use their freedom, are among these criticisms that have particularly challenged the free will defense in contemporary times. Immanuel Kant, an 18th-century German philosopher, depicts the role of free will in the occurrence of moral evils in a way that allows for responses to these objections to be extracted from his foundations in ethics, as well as from the works he has specifically done on this topic. The moral evolution of humanity throughout history is a significant good that, according to Kant, justifies the occurrence of moral evils that arise not from animalistic desires but solely from human free will. This article, with a descriptive-analytical approach and utilizing translations of the works of Kant and some contemporary Kantian scholars, presents a report on Kant's thoughts regarding the free will defense, clarifies its alignment with Islamic anthropology, and outlines the strengths and weaknesses of Kant's perspective.

Kant is known as the pioneer of artistic formalism. Art critics and commentators on Kant's works have also confirmed this claim. Kant discusses the form first in the critique of pure reason and then in the third moment of the critique of the power of judgment. According to Kant, what is universal in the judgment of the beauty and could be expected from all people is the form. Unlike the form, the sensory perception of an object varies depending on the perceptual ability of people. Roger Fry and Clive Bell, as formalist critics and artists, put forward Kant's concept of form in the 20th century, and by emphasizing it as the only act of beautifying works of art in the modern era, they played an irreplaceable role in the expansion and development of Kant's view on the concept of form in modern art. This article aims to investigate the relationship between this concept in the thought of formalists and in Kant's aesthetics. It was determined by the conducted investigations that, although formalists consider form to be a kind of temporal-spatial arrangement of the sensuous intuitive manifolds, in terms of their emphasis on the emotional expression of form in contrast to Kant's emphasis on the purposiveness without purpose of the form and the creation of the free harmony of imagination and understanding, there is a great difference between Kant's thought and Fry and Bell's formalist thought.

Metaphysics has a long-standing history in philosophy. Although it does not date back as far as philosophy itself, it has always been a fundamental part of philosophical systems and is regarded as "first philosophy", the highest domain of rational knowledge. At times, metaphysics has been considered synonymous with philosophy, addressing fundamental questions about the essence and reality of things, or pure being. However, as intellectual developments have progressed, metaphysics has faced serious criticism and even outright rejection. Immanuel Kant and Rudolf Carnap, two prominent philosophers from distinct philosophical traditions, adopted critical stances toward metaphysics, resulting in profound transformations within this field. Kant, through his Copernican Revolution and his distinction between analytic/synthetic propositions and a priori/a posteriori concepts, examined the conditions under which metaphysics could be considered possible. In contrast, Carnap, a leading figure of the Vienna Circle, developed theories on analytic/synthetic judgments and their relationship to experience, establishing an epistemological framework that dismissed metaphysical propositions as meaningless. This article seeks to address the following questions: Which aspects of Kant’s philosophy revitalized philosophical thought and influenced Carnap and the logical positivism of the Vienna Circle? How did Kant critique and redefine metaphysics? How did Kant’s rationalist philosophy shape the empiricism of the logical positivists? A comparison of these two philosophers’ perspectives reveals that Carnap drew significant inspiration from Kant’s philosophy. Nevertheless, a fundamental difference exists between them: Kant sought to liberate metaphysics from its traditional framework and redefine it in a scientific and rigorous manner. In contrast, Carnap, emphasizing empiricism and dismissing metaphysics as futile, aimed to abolish it entirely and pave the way for the scientific advancement of human knowledge.

One of the common criticisms of Kant's moral theory is the excessive attention to reason and its absoluteness in the moral law. In such a way that neglecting other elements involved in the moral judgment, including feelings, leads to the impossibility and emergence of the sadistic strain of Kant's moral foundations and provides a suitable ground for the emergence of evil. According to this view, evil is considered to be associated with good, because what is meant by moral good is an action that is in accordance with the absolute, regardless of its content. Aligned with the impossibility of the absolute, Sade moves Kant's moral foundations and considers the name of every absolute will to be evil according to the principle of non-contradiction. Therefore, any morally heinous act can be willed according to the moral law according to the inclusion in the maxim, without disturbing the foundations of the absolute. According to Lacan, loyalty to desire and its insatiability is a moral criterion that If morality is considered devoid of pathological elements, it will become its opposite, simple morality, and the morality of desire, instead of moving from one object to another object, will be caught in the bed of simple satisfaction, as a result, in the movement towards pleasure at the ultimate threshold. The truth remains. Kant uses the special concept of respect as a representative of the pathological element to avoid falling into the sadistic side of his ethics and to fix this gap for his ethics.

Critique of Kant's philosophical and epistemological plans for aesthetic judgments has taken an important step in his confrontation with the beautiful. Regardless of the aesthetic dimension of the beautiful, Kant has viewed the work of art as a value that can be combined with ethics, metaphysics, and rationalism. The formal and content effect of the critique of the power of judgment is not hidden from any philosophical attitude. But Gadamer, in Truth and Method , Criticizes Kant's aesthetic experiences. His critical reading of Kant and his ontological view of the beautiful have, in many respects, made the vast potential of Kant's concepts unnecessary. The essay shows that Gadamer's narrative of kant , before escaping a negative aspect of the cognitive pursuit of the beautiful, is very positively affected by it. Gadamer is considered a critic of Kant's work, but he has positively and negatively preserved Kant's aesthetics. The direct effects of Kant's concepts on Gadamer's aesthetic experience have unilaterally demonstrated many of his critiques of Kant. The essay in the first part, analyzes the beautiful from the perspective of Kant and Gadamer. In the second part, the epistemological foundations of Gadamer's concepts are introduced, and in the final section, in three independent critiques to Gadamer, a new version of Gadamer's reading of Kant is presented.

The issue of self-knowledge, while ancient, has always been both challenging and paradoxical. In this paper, considering that the "self" is the central axis of Kant’s thought in all three Critiques, we will attempt to analyze the mystery surrounding self-knowledge in Kant’s philosophy. To this end, we will briefly examine the following points: (1) What is the difference between self-consciousness and knowledge of the "self"? (2) Awareness of something without having knowledge of it is one of the dilemmas of Kantian philosophy, and this becomes more pronounced when it comes to the "self." However, this mystery cannot be seen as a flaw in Kant’s philosophy, as in the discourse on self-knowledge, the self is always a logical step behind itself. (3) Finally, despite Kant’s claim that the thing-in-itself has no relation to time, we will explore the connection between the "self" as a thing-in-itself and time, which contributes to the mystery of the "self."

Lacan's article Kant with Sade and his seminar on psychoanalytic ethics represent a novel and innovative contribution to ethical debates. As acknowledged by most interpreters and commentators of Lacanian psychoanalysis, Kant with Sade is considered one of Lacan's most complex and challenging writings in his book Écrits. Despite the often incomprehensible complexity of Lacan's text, the author of this research argues that in this groundbreaking article, Lacan introduces the idea that the philosophy of Marquis de Sade, particularly in his book Philosophy in the Bedroom, not only extends Kant's ethical ideas in Critique of Practical Reason, but in fact complements them. In this article, Lacan claims that Kant represents the law, while Sade represents desire. Kant seeks to establish a pure moral law that restrains the pathological or disordered desires of the subject, whereas Sade pursues pure desire, one that transgresses all laws and is free. However, Lacan’s main thesis is that the law is dependent on desire for its existence, and desire, in turn, relies on the law for its existence. In other words, law and desire share a symbiotic and reciprocal relationship—a relationship that constitutes and grounds the psychic life of the human subject. The subject emerges from the dialectical relationship between law and desire.

Kant’s Dreams of a Spirit-Seer Explained by Dreams of Metaphysics is one of the significant works from Immanuel Kant’s so-called "pre-Critical" period, published in 1766, fifteen years before the Critique of Pure Reason. In this essay, Kant examines and critiques the claims of Emanuel Swedenborg, the Swedish scholar and mystic, regarding access to a transcendent, supersensible world. The question of this paper is whether Kant’s critique of Swedenborg’s claims was influenced by Hume. If so, which fundamental concepts in the essay Dreams reflect this influence? In the present paper, we read Dreams in light of Hume’s An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, a work that Kant is believed to have studied before writing Dreams. Through an analysis of both works, we ultimately conclude that some of Kant’s most important positions in Dreams, including his critique of metaphysics, his empirical interpretation of causality, and his understanding of metaphysics as "the science of the limits of human reason," were directly influenced by Hume.

In Islamic tradition, man is defined as an intermediary and liminal being, situated between the animal and the angel, with the constant potential for ascent or descent to either of these ontological spheres. This paper endeavors to provide a philosophical interpretation of this intermediary and liminal position of man based on the concept of the imaginative faculty in the philosophies of Al-Farabi and Kant. The central question of this essay is to examine how, in the works of these two philosophers, epistemology serves as a platform for offering an ontological interpretation of man's liminal position. This paper represents an initial exploration of this topic. Given the prominence of the imaginative faculty in Kant's philosophy, particularly in his discussion of transcendental deduction, this paper will begin by tracing the trajectory of transcendental deduction, highlighting the role of the imaginative faculty and its two levels of productive and reproductive imagination. It will then proceed to examine these two levels of imagination (productive and reproductive) in Al-Farabi's thought, without resorting to simplistic comparisons or equating the two philosophers' perspectives. Employing an analytical approach, the paper will seek to establish an anthropological foundation for the imaginative faculty in the philosophies of both thinkers. The intermediary role of imagination in the realization of knowledge in the works of these two philosophers provides the basis for such an endeavor.

One of most important post-Kant attitudes is philosophy of Hegel’s non-rationalism and idealism. Hegel’s philosophy considers other one of fundamental attacks of non-modernism to rationalism and individualism in history of western philosophy. He is certainly philosophers who took most important and strongest steps to postmodernism. Hence, he could establish systematic idealism in thought of postmodern actually. Kant by knowing of subject as a prior matter, took more step than previous philosophers and he started non-rationalism systematically and generally, but Hegel believed that Kant had taken the step weakly. Hence, he took four major steps even more extreme than Kant, in forming of postmodernism which could reach program of postmodern to itself final. The four steps are as following: 1.subject creates whole reality. 2. Contradiction is a possible matter and cause perfection. 3. Whereas main frame of reality is contradictive, truth is a relative and variant matter. 4. World concludes collective operation not personal. Hegel by these four major theses, has massive share and very key and serious in solidarity and conformation of idealism and skeptical foundations of postmodernism.