نشریه مطالعات آموزش و یادگیری
سال هشتم شماره 2 (پیاپی 71، پاییز و زمستان 1395)

Introduction Until recently, the self-conscious emotions have been poorly studied. Few studies on their meanings, how they are developed, and how individual differences arise have been conducted (Lewis, 2011). Self-conscious evaluative emotions have important roles in children’s motivation, social competence, and adjustment (Lewis & Sullivan, 2005). Shame and guilt are two self-conscious emotions that are necessary from childhood to be considered. Shame is the product of the self-evaluation of its actions in regard to standards, rules, goals and a global attribution. This emotion is a consequence of a failure when someone accepts the responsibility for failure and there is a global focus on the self. Shame can occur in response to either failed moral actions or poor achievements (Lewis, 1992). Guilt/regret also occurs in response to accepting personal responsibility for a failure, but it is not as intensely negative as shame, because, with guilt, the focus of attention is on the individual’s specific actions that resulted in the failure. Because the focus of attention in guilt is on specific behaviors, individuals can get rid of this emotion through reparative action. Rectification of the failure and prevention of a future reoccurrence are the two possible corrective paths that individuals can choose. Thus, guilt is not the self-destroying emotion that shame is (Cole, Barrett, & Zahn-Waxler, 1992). Because not only the common people but also some experts and theorists equated the two terms interchangeably (Damon, 1988; Eisenberg, 1986 & Harris, 1989), one of the challenges facing researchers in distinguishing the difference and similarities of these two emotions, is to identify the precedents and outcomes of shame and guilt. Few studies have examined the antecedents of these two emotions. The emotions of shame and guilt are deductive because adults and older children ascribe success or failure to cause with certain properties or dimensions (Lewis & Sullivan, 2005). Examining the role of attribution styles in self-conscious emotions of shame and guilt for elementary schools’ students may provide a clearer picture of the processes that underlie these emotions. Research Questions The present study tried to answer the following questions: 1- Which negative aspects of attribution-styles can be explained regarding selfconscious emotion of shame?
2- Which positive aspects of attribution-styles can be explained regarding selfconscious emotion of shame?
3- Which negative aspects of attribution-styles can be explained regarding selfconscious emotion of guilt?
4- Which positive aspects of attribution-styles can be explained regarding selfconscious emotion of guilt?
Method The participations were 565 students of elementary school, students of the fourth, fifth and sixth grades of Galedar (284 girls and 281 boys) who were selected by multistage cluster sampling. They were asked to complete TOSCA-C and CASQ– R scales, respectively. The validity and reliability of these scales were attested. The data were analyzed using stepwise regression technique.
Results The results showed that dimensions of internal, stable and global negative attribution style directly and dimension of stable positive attribution style indirectly can predict the shame. Furthermore, dimensions of stable and global negative style indirectly and dimension of stable positive style directly can predict the guilt.
Discussion The results showed that the three dimensions of negative stable, negative internal and negative overall can change the shame’s explanation. These findings are consistent with the theoretical concepts provided by Lewis (1992) about a shame. The results showed that positive stable dimension changes can be reversed the shame’s prediction. To explain these findings it can be said that negative stable dimension causes shame (Tracy & Robins, 2004) but the positive stable dimension includes individual success in future situations. With this interpretation the reverse relationship between positive stable and shame can be explained. On the role of negative attribution style in guilt, the results showed that two dimensions of negative stable and negative overall are negatively explaining the variance of guilt. In expressing the negative role the negative stable dimension has for guilt it should be noted that for guilt, the attribution of failures, is more temporary (Buss, 1980). But in the negative stable, causes of failure are attributable to factors that remain constant over time. The relationship between the three dimensions of positive attribution style and emotion guilt, the results showed that positive stable can directly modify the guilt’s prediction. The study recommended practical suggestions to parents and teachers in the light of conclusions for the students’ education.

Introduction Learning in the workplace can be seen as a way to improve communication processes. Learning not only helps to improve individual and organizational performance but also enhance the integrity of the process that requires the interaction of people and the environment; environmental learning as a process of formal and informal relationships transfers technical knowledge, culture and norms. Previous research about learning at work insisted on the process of collective learning and social communication at work. Understanding workplace learning means to detect complications and social processes of individual and organizational contexts that have an impact on the socialization. Various variables in the workplace can influence the individuals, groups and organizations learning. Good learning environment can encourage employees to stay in the organization for a long time. The purpose of this study was to investigate the direct and indirect relationships between organizational learning culture, managerial effectiveness, psychological empowerment and workplace learning.
Research hypotheses According to empirical literature review, direct and indirect relationships between the variables of organizational learning culture, managerial effectiveness, psychological empowerment and the workplace learning, in this study six hypotheses were investigated: 1) organizational learning culture increases managerial effectiveness; 2) organizational learning culture facilitates learning in the workplace; 3) organizational learning culture will facilitate the psychological empowerment; 4) the effectiveness of managerial increases workplace learning; 5) employee's psychological empowerment improve learning in the workplace 6) psychological empowerment is improved by the managerial effectiveness.
Methods In this correlational study (structural equation modeling), the internal relationship between exogenous construct, organizational learning culture, and endogenous, managerial effectiveness, psychological empowerment and workplace learning were investigated. Data with the participation of 117 employees of two public organizations in Tehran were gathered. The population included all employees of the two organizations excepting those who had less than one year of work experience because these staff did not have the opportunity to gain experience on the field. Information in this study was collected by using four standard questionnaires: a) Learning organization questionnaire (Marsick and Watkins, 2003) with 7 items, b) Psychological empowerment questionnaire (Spreitzer, 1995) with 12 items c) Managerial effectiveness inventory (Denison et al. 1995) with 5 items and d) Workplace learning questionnaire (Reio, 1997) with 18 items. The validity of all instruments was investigated by confirmatory factor analysis and testing of the average variance extracted (AVE). The Cronbach's alpha coefficients (between 0.79 and 0.94) verified the reliability of the questionnaires. In order to test the hypotheses or structural equation model of organizational learning culture, managerial effectiveness, psychological empowerment and workplace learning Smart PLS was used.
Results More than half of the participants were aged between 30 and 39. The work experience of 45.30% of the participants was between 10 and 19 years. Also 44% of respondents were males. According to the results the highest average learning in the workplace related to the relationship (28.3) and the highest mean of organizational learning culture related to the communications system (2.71). The correlations among all variables were significant. The highest significant correlation between "managerial effectiveness" and "learning in the workplace" (r = 0.63) and the lowest significant correlation between "managerial effectiveness" and "psychological empowerment" (r = 0.50) have been reported. Based on the model of this study, organizational learning culture, managerial effectiveness, psychological empowerment and learning in the workplace were entered into the analysis. The finding of this study determined that organizational learning culture, managerial effectiveness, and psychological empowerment had a significant direct and indirect effect, through managerial effectiveness, and psychological empowerment on workplace learning. In particular, organizational learning culture had a strong impact (Total effect = 0.62) on workplace learning. Organizational learning culture had significant direct and indirect effects on the psychological empowerment and managerial effectiveness. Finally, the results showed that managerial effectiveness had a significant direct effect on the psychological empowerment.
Discussion and Conclusion Based on these results, organizational learning culture had the greatest role directly and indirectly by improving management effectiveness and psychological empowerment and influenced the employees learning in the workplace. These results revealed the importance of organizational culture for managers who might be encouraged to promote a culture of learning in the organization. In this study, social aspect of learning in the workplace is considered and psychological and economic factors such as the strength of the organization, use of technology, management values and identity have not been studied.

Introduction Technology, as a modernity relic, does not have a prolonged background in educational settings. However, in a rather short history, it has seen twists and turns in the course of its appearance in schools. As Simsek (2005) reports, educational technology’s presence was partially due to the supply of industry rather than the demand of pedagogy when the concept of “visual education” emerged in the beginning of the twentieth century. With the expansion of such a concept schools were considered as a potential market and consequently the “visual education offices” were founded ) p. 178). Technology Integration Matrix, developed by Florida Center for Instructional Technology, is one of the various models that provides a framework for evaluating technology integration. This study was also an attempt to examine how high school teachers applied technology in their educational activities .
Research objective Iranian Ministry of Education spends extensive amount of funds to provide schools with technologies they need. It also implements continuous professional development sessions to prepare teachers in order to keep abreast of technological changes, which in turn consume a considerable sum of expenses. Along with the direct technology supplying as well as teachers preparation costs, there exists a more implicit opportunity cost. It accounts for the opportunity overlooked when an alternative pathway is taken. The opportunity cost, in the case of supplying schools with technologies, could include a variety of educational tools or activities that could have been provided had the aforementioned technology and training costs not existed .Given the importance of examining how these triangular costs, the current research was conducted to explore the applications of these technologies in their educational practices. More specifically, it examined how ICTs were applied in “smart schools .”
Method The research benefited from a qualitative approach and a case study method. Participants included twelve 10th grade mathematics and physics teachers in the province of Zanjan, Iran. The classes were used applying intentional sampling, as the research objective was to study the teachers who had ICTs in their classes and used them in their educational activities. Data were collected through non-participatory observations where the researcher used note taking, photographing and/or video recording tools whenever the permission was granted .
Results Findings showed that teachers generally use ICTs to transfer the content to the students; students are passive and only listen to the media; despite computer sufficiency, only one of them is used and the rest are covered; and majority of students were mentally absent even though the technology has potentials to attract their attention. Overall, application of ICTs has not changed traditional teaching or students ’learning- transforming the text, pictures, and teachers’ voice into digital ,and presenting them traditionally have been the only changes taken place. Such a picture depicts ICTs along with teachers, content and students as four sides of a broken quadrangle. The teacher uses technology and one of the angles has been created by adjoining them. In fact, from turning the computer on to using the educational software is all done by the teacher. The second angle is formed as the result of bonding technology and content, i.e. the content is delivered by means of technology. The content that traditionally was delivered though the textbooks and teacher’s voice is now digitized in the form of software as a medium. A more important relationship which should be between the teacher and students does not exist. Communication between them is a oneway road as a knowledge transfer route leading to the third broken angle. Students rarely engage with the content to build their own knowledge hence causing the fourth angle to break apart .
Discussions Studies conducted on the technology applications in teaching and learning emphasize the core idea that technology leads to learning improvements (Noeth & Volkov, 2004). The idea is vital even though hard to examine (WestEd., 2002; U.S. Department of Education, 2002). Examining the idea of “improvement”, this study depicted that technology is rarely used in favor of leading to deep learning; ostensibly, the education seems modern but having roots in the traditional realms where medium is only a means of transmission. Why do educational processes see little improvement in spite of these modern technologies? What is missing which leads to a broken quadrangle? It seems that the teachers were less equipped to integrate technology in pedagogy even though they were trained with the appearance of technologies in classrooms and emergence of “smart schools”. The training agenda has mainly focused on the technology operation mechanisms rather than its pedagogical benefits. To gain these benefits, teachers need to know where, when and what technology should be used and what the pros and cons of a particular technology over the others are. It requires such a mastery to apply conceptual understanding in practical contexts, the highest level of technology literacy that Davies (2011) calls phronesis. Research suggests that a constant integration of technology in daily pedagogical activities has the potential to lead to such wisdom (Lawrence & ,Fraser Calhoun, 2013). It is also worth mentioning that the level of technology integration in the studied classrooms mainly fits within the “entry” stage of the Technology Integration Matrix (TIM). As the matrix developers describe, at the entry level, it is the teacher who normally uses technology to convey content, and students are limited to listening, watching or working on pre-designed activities. This picture is congruent with the “emerging” approach that Anderson and Weert (2002 (showed in their Continuum of Approaches to ICT Development in schools .

Introduction The concept of assertiveness as a very important personal quality means to be able to advocate for yourself, your own positions, to achieve your objectives, to overcome the difficulties and to control the aggressive impulses without harming the rights of others. It has an important role in the effective social communication and healthy interpersonal relationships. Thus, it should not be surprising that measures of assertiveness are frequently included in studies of psychopathology and it is often addressed in mental health treatments. For example, low levels of assertiveness are targeted in treatments of generalized anxiety disorder (e. g. , Brown et al. 2001), social phobia, (Lydiard and Falsetti 1995), posttraumatic stress disorder (e. g, . Kubany 2002), depression (e. g. , Beck 1995; Young et al. 2001) and bulimia nervosa (e. g. , Openshaw et al. 2004). According to the literature search, the environmental (e. g. family and academic environmental variables) variables as well as the process of emotion regulation in the field of social behaviors and skills are significant parameters related to students’ assertiveness. Scholars have devoted nearly 40 years of research examining these working models of parent-child communication (or schemata), which are regarded in the theoretical construct of Family Communication Patterns (FCP). Family communication patterns can be classified into conversation and conformity orientations. In the conversation-oriented families, children are encouraged to show feelings and express ideas, even if they disagree with others. In contrast, in the conformity-oriented families, children are encouraged to avoid controversy and obey parent's ideas without question (Ritchie and Fitzpatrick, 1990). Family communication patterns have been found to be associated with communication apprehension (Elwood & Schrader, 1998; Hsu, 1998), unwillingness to communicate (Avtgis, 1999), shyness (Huang, 1999), and reticence (Kelly et al, 2000). These studies indicated that individuals who perceive their home environment as low in conversation and high in conformity are more likely to suffer the problem of communication anxiety than those who come from high conversation- and low conformity-oriented families. According to Hsu (2009), communication patterns between teacher and student have also been shown to be important for the development of some behaviors (Ayres, 1988; Daly & Friedrich, 1981). It is seemed that the concepts of conversation and conformity orientations could also be applied to teacher-student communications. Conversation-oriented teachers encourage their students to talk more in class, ask questions, and express ideas, whereas conformityoriented teachers like their students to be quiet in class, avoid disagreements, and obey teacher's ideas without question. As well, one mechanism that might explain outcomes of FCP and TCP on social behaviors is the process of effective emotion regulation. There is no doubt that emotions serve numerous functions, such as evolutionary functions ) Tooby & Cosmides, 1990, (social and communicative functions) e. g. , Ekman, 1993, (and decision making functions) Oatley & Johnson-Laird, 1987), among others. There is a growing appreciation that individuals exert considerable control over their emotions, using a wide range of strategies to influence which emotions they have and when they have those (Gross, 1998). In this study, two common emotion regulation strategies _ cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression _were focused.
Cognitive reappraisal is a form of cognitive change that involves construing a potentially emotion-eliciting situation in a way that changes its emotional impact (Lazarus & Alfert, 1964). For example, during an admissions interview, one might view the give and take as an opportunity to find out how much one likes the school, rather than as a test of one’s worth. Expressive suppression is a form of response modulation that involves inhibiting ongoing emotion-expressive behavior (Gross, 1998). For example, one might keep a poker face while holding a great hand during a card game. Consequently, the aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between family/teachers communication patterns with students ’assertiveness through the mediating role of emotion regulation.
Research Questions or Hypothesis This study, in framework of a causal model, investigated of the assertiveness based on family/teacher communication Patterns. In this model family/teacher communication patterns was considered as an exogenous variable, emotion regulation as a mediator variable and students ’assertiveness as an endogenous variable. So, the research questions were;
1- Do family/teacher communication pattern predict students ’assertiveness?
2- Do family/teacher communication pattern predict emotion regulation?
3- Has emotion regulation any mediating role in relation to family/teacher communication patterns and students ’assertiveness?
Method The Participants were 167 female and 132 male undergraduate students of Shiraz University selected via random cluster sampling method. Adaptive and Aggressive Assertiveness (Thompson and Berenbaum), Revised Family Communication Patterns Inventory (Ritchie and Fitzpatrick), Teacher Communication Patterns (Hsu) and Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (Gross and John (were used to measure the research variables. The factor analysis was used to determine the validity of the measures and their reliability was examined by Choronbach alpha coefficient. The evidence confirmed the validity and reliability of the scales. A series of simultaneous sequential regression was conducted to examine the model. Moreover, Barown and Kenny steps and bootstrapping method in AMOS was used to examine the mediational effects of intervening variables.
Results The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationships between family/teachers communication patterns with students ’assertiveness by the mediating role of emotion regulation. It was found that conversation orientation of FCP can directly or indirectly predict two forms of assertiveness. Results showed that family conversation had positive, significant and indirect effect by mediating effect of cognitive reappraisal strategy. Indeed, family conversation by mediating effect of cognitive reappraisal strategy had positive, significant and indirect effect on assertiveness. Moreover, the conformity orientation of FCP is just able to predict aggressive assertiveness. Also, findings revealed that teacher communication patterns do not have any effect in assertiveness. Only the conformity orientation predicts the expressive suppression strategy of emotion regulation.
Discussion and Conclusion This research showed that family conversation had positive, significant and indirect effect by mediating effect of cognitive reappraisal strategy. Indeed, the families with conversation orientation lead to the better use of the strategy of cognitive reappraisal and subsequently it enhances adaptive assertiveness. So, Family communication patterns have important consequences in social life. Families with a free, comfortable, and rich conversation orientation have a joyful family life compared with families with a conformity orientation, resulting in an adaptive assertive behavior in children. If the family has an acceptable, compassion and non-punitive atmospheres, one also sees positive emotions and learns to express her /his emotions (positive and negative ones) and how appraise the event and difficulties. As a result, this ability leads to adaptive behaviors. In this study, these different patterns and their implications have been discussed.

Introduction According to the ratified law to accept students in future based on increasing the share of their Grade Point Average (GPA) scores in combination with National Entrance Exam (NEE) scores and (omitting the NEE’s role gradually) specifying quality and quantity of the combination of these two scores for the good selection of university applicants has been one of the most challenging problems for the decision makers at National Organization of Educational Testing (NOET).
Objective This research has been done in order to assess the validity of GPA scores, NEE scores, and their combination based on Generalizability Theory.
Method The research method was descriptive baesd on which GPA and NEE scores of 5608 students in mathematics and engineering were analyzed.
Results Results have shown that each of dual testing methods (GPA scores and NEE scores) used for ranking and selecting the cognizant applicants to the next educational level has the optimum generalizability coefficient; The true variance of each set of these scores can rank persons for the next level of education, but the combination of the two was not efficient .
Conclusion The NEE is a norm-referenced test with positive skewness, and GPA scores coming from different test are criterion-referenced tests with negative skewness .Combination of these scores has made a bi-modal distribution which produces zero or negative variance and makes the generalizability coefficient invalid. Converting scores to percentile ranks for elimination skewness and then converting ranks to standard-z score distribution in order to combine the distributions of these scores results in increasing the true variance and improving both generalizability coefficients and Index of dependability .Moreover ,to composite score for this group the levels of general exam in NEE should be reduced to 3 produce a total scores and simultaneously the unique score of mathematic sub-tests in specialized test-split to 4 layers of scores.

Introduction Among psychological theories, Adlerian individual approach pays more attention to the importance of individual’s relation with social environment in the way that social interest is one of the most important concepts of this theory. Greater participation with people and community memebers will lead to more social interest. Adler believed that having interest to peers and positive attitudes toward cooperation with others in childhood leads to mental health in adulthood. In fact, the growth of social interest is underlying mental health in both childhood and adulthood from Adler’s viewpoint. This is specially true for children with emotional/behavioral disorders who face significant challenges for social adjustment. Children with Oppositional Defiant Disorder suffering greatly from the lack of social interest according to researches are also in this group. They have interpersonal problems and usually do not have friends and are not usually satisfied with human relationships. They have difficulty in interacting with peers in the classroom and possibly have been ignored by others. Despite the importance of social interest in developing psychological health factors and decrease of psychological problems, experts do not offer a special program for training, however, they believe in that social interest is an inborn and congenital character and needs to be trained in family and social setting.
Research Questions Present research was conducted to develop a social interest fostering program for children and parents and testing its validity by examining its impact on social interest increase of students with Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). The research questions were:1. Does the training program for parents and children to foster social interest, increase responsibility and commitment of students with oppositional defiant disorder?
2. Does the training program for parents and children to foster social interest, increase communication and empathy for students with oppositional defiant disorder?
3. Does the training program for parents and children to foster social interest, increase assertiveness-confidence of students with oppositional defiant disorder?
4. Does the training program for parents and children to foster social interest, increase the sense of equality versus inferiority/superiority for students with oppositional defiant disorder?
5. Does the training program for parents and children to foster social interest, increase social interest of students with oppositional defiant disorder?
Method This study was an experimental research benefitting from pretest-posttest control group design. At first, researchers developped a social interest fostering program retrieved from Adler-Dreikurs theory. Reviewing the conducted studies on social interest suggests that there has not been a training program for fostering this concept. So primarily a framework was designed for training program based on Adler-Dreikurs theory, then experts were asked to verify the program before performance. Reviewing the literature, sources that affect social interest were determined: eight individual and social factors that impact social interest were children-parents interactions’ quality in family context and their interactions quality with others out of this context, social desires and social empathy, avoidance of parents form using permissive parenting style, avoidance from parents over compassion, entrusting social and individual responsibilities to child, father-mother relation quality in family context, avoidance from developing competition in parenting context in family and the most importantly, encouraging the child (assertiveness-confidence). Accordingly, the training program to foster social interest was designed in two levels of training parents and training for children. Totally 20 sessions of training (10 sessions for parents and 10 sessions for children each lasted for an hour) were held. Thirty four students aged between 9 to 12 who were referred to health centers with their parents were recruited and assigned for the experimental and the control group randomly. Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and Social Interest Scale for Iranian Children (SISIC) were utilized to evaluate their social interests and their components.
Results Data were analyzed using Covariance analysis and MANCOVA. Results revealed that the developed training social interest program could increase social interest (p