نشریه فردوس هنر
پیاپی 1 (تابستان 1399)

Statement of the problem:</strong> Ishraqi architecture expressed a kind of architecture theory of which primary foundations including participles, constituents and generality are based on the philosophical and ontological theory of Ishraq. The philosophy of Ishraq described in Hecmat o Aleshraq</em>, wrote by the great Persian philosopher Shahoddin Sohravardi, known as Sheikh Eshraq and famous commentaries on the book done by Ghotboddin Shirazi. As far as Ishraqi philosophy entitled Aristotle's theory of matter and form, the proposed architecture not confronted with the classics. Philosophical conceptions as matter and form, substance and accidents taken approximately as similar or even united. Matter faces divisions unlimitedly while unity and preservation continuously given to it by form. The important principle of Light identified in Iahraqi philosophy been added to other metaphysical principles over which has a great authoritarian domination. Purpose of the article:</strong> This article tried to explore the possible architecture of light conditioned correspondingly with the architecture based on spatial form. The author is not intended yet in introducing a defined Ishraqi architecture, rather would take in favor of examining hypothetical foundation that might useful in architectural discourses trended in the Islamic studies of art. 

Iranian metal lamp stands, especially from fourth century onwards, are considered as one of remarkable pre-modern lighting devices from medieval Islamic period. They are, as it is clear form their names, kinds of tall stands on which they would put an oil lamp to make a space as light as possible. During medieval Islamic period, forms and designs of Iranian metal lamp stands have gone through major changes and developments. Among their outstanding forms there are lamp stands with concave bases and hooked feet, which have been appeared and flourished during fifth and sixth century A. H. While Lamp stands probably appeared for the first time in the early Islamic period in Iran, their exact origin is not clear. They may be derived from some neglected forms of ancient Iran or from other neighbor cultures of Islamic Iran like Byzantine. In all it is undeniable that these products featured by Iranian design culture in the Islamic period. Therefore, the main problem to which this study has been dedicated is to depict the process of developments of Iranian metal lamp stands from Medieval Islamic period and thus to introduce their main typological characteristics. This essay studies on the developmental process and typological characteristics of metal Lamp stands from Islamic period in Iran. In this research, we tend to either figure out the step by step evolution process of these Lamp stands or show how to study the other historical devices. The main question of this research is what the typological characteristics of metal lamp stands of Iranian design are. Here, in order to go through this question, I have applied descriptive analytical method of research. The method of data gathering for this inquiry, therefore, is obviously that of desk study. Thus, I have followed and considered the development process of mostly bronze and brass Lamp stands from medieval Islamic Iran. And, studying the most important changes in design styles, the route that they have passed from the beginning of the Islamic period until eight century A. H., is recognized and depicted. Furthermore, I have decided to choose a new approach to the history of object’s design suggested by Vyas, an Indian scholar. According to Vyas, in order to be a major landmark a moment in the history of an object should indicate five kinds of changes: changes in design and structure of devices; changes in appearance of them; changes in methods of manufacturing; changes in the ways they have been used; and finally changes in objects’ relationship with their users. Therefore, according to these principles the most important change steps during development process of Iranian lamp stands from Islamic period can be characterized in three main typological groups. While first group contains lamp stands with concave bases and hooked feet, the second one consists of lamp stands with domed bases and hooked feet. And, Finally in the third group there are lamp stands only with domed bases and no hooked feet. It seems that, due to expansion in cultural and political relation of Islamic society and Byzantine world, the prototype of lamp stands has emerged under the Mediterranean influences. There has been survived candlesticks from Byzantium that share a great deal of elements with our lamp stands from group one. Especially, concave bases has to mentioned here. Nevertheless, at the same time, one can speak of the influences coming from pre Islamic Iranian design features when it comes to hooked feet. These characteristic feet are always present in the design of lamp stands and only disappear in the objects of the third group. The other characteristic feature in the design of these devices are their tall shafts. Although rarely are they intact, but it is clear that some of them are modular with globular units, while others are made of pierced metal sheets. The influences of architectural columns are evident in design of some of these shafts. Bases are also important. Whereas, bases of lam stands in the first group are characteristically concaved, bases in the second group have been through a remarkable change and introduced simple domed shapes on hooked feet. Still in the third group, these doomed shaped bases have become stepped in profile. At the end, it was revealed that the design development process of Iranian lamp stands of medieval Islamic period has been ceased as soon as their application has been reduced in Iranian society. It has been observed that the cessation of these lighting devices has coincided with the flourishing industry of known Islamic candlesticks manufacture.

Undoubtedly, art has been one of the most influential features of cultural development throughout human history. On the other hand, the sustainability and growth of art in the context of culture has been possible depending on scientific education. One of the best ways to teach art is to acquaint students with the moral course of the greats of art and to recognize and evaluate their valuable works. In the meantime, the life and works of Master Farshchian have been considered as a clear example of these great men. Master Mahmoud Farshchian, as the most famous contemporary Iranian painter and as a world-renowned artist, has made a significant contribution to the revival and promotion of Iranian painting and traditional arts in general in the contemporary period. Throughout his professional life, he has always defended the lofty and eternal position of Iranian painting, both by writing early articles and by the works he has created during his career. He has never, in fact, degraded the status of Iranian painting, both nationally and internationally. Farshchian brought the fame of Iranian culture and art to the attention of the world, especially Europe and the United States, by teaching, lecturing, and setting up his exhibitions at major universities and art centers around the world. The artist has earned such a status during his lifetime that he has received inscriptions from high-ranking kings and officials, presidents and prime ministers of various countries, as well as museums, libraries, personal collectors and art enthusiasts. Prominent university professors and internationally renowned artists, although they consider Farshchian to be the origin of Isfahan and Iran, consider him to belong to the world's cultural and artistic heritage with great insight and his works in interaction and understanding between people of different civilizations. They have been considered effective and efficient. In this regard, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization; UNESCO has published selected works by Mahmoud Farshchian in two voluminous volumes by Homai Publications in New York and in the printing presses of Zalborg, Germany (1991) and Florence, Italy (2004). The German edition of the book has been introduced as the most exquisite art book of the present age. Federico Mayor and Quichiro Matsura, former UNESCO executives, have also written valuable introductions to the work. The artist's name is registered in the list of 21st century intellectuals and now in Iran, the style and method of Farshchian is well known and due to its wide and undeniable effects, it has countless followers who have created a certain school of this style. Of course, in addition to influencing contemporary Iranian painting trends, it has also had significant effects on Iranian national and traditional arts. However, given such a position, one of the most appropriate and strategic measures of the Ministry of Education has been to appreciate and protect the personality of this famous artist in the form of assigning lessons or chapters to his life and works in textbooks.

The first step was to introduce and describe accurately and documented art textbooks on the subject of Mahmoud Farshchian, and in the next step, pathology and recognition of the strengths and weaknesses of these resources, to adopt strategic and effective policies in this field.

Basically, from the beginning until now, have the textbooks for teaching art on the subject of Mahmoud Farshchian been documented and comprehensively described and described? And have these sensitive resources been pathologically analyzed in terms of their educational role?

This research, with a descriptive-analytical method and with library and field documents and information, while introducing and describing the relatively comprehensive textbooks of art education textbooks (with Farshchian focus), especially middle school textbooks, since 1983 by teaching and Breeding has been published, addressing the pathology of the form and content of these resources.

In this research, an attempt was made to introduce and describe the relatively comprehensive textbooks of art education, especially middle school textbooks, which have been published by education since 1983, to analyze and pathology of the form and content of these resources. As mentioned in the text, the reflection of the life and works of Master Mahmoud Farshchian in the form of art education books has been a very correct and worthy action by education, which in addition to the technical and educational dimension of the artist's works can be inspiring and encouraging. Students and students should be talented, on the other hand, it is a reminder to honor and the enduring figures and artistic figures who have always been emphasized by human and Islamic teachings. From this point of view, the measured action of the "Educational Research and Planning Organization" of the Ministry of Education, especially about a high-profile and global figure such as Mahmoud Farshchian, is highly commendable. From another point of view, along with these advantages, there are shortcomings and disadvantages that the author has obtained by carefully observing the publication of educational books on the art of life and Farshchian's works in recent decades. It is hoped that this pathology and recognition of strengths and weaknesses, which is based solely on sincerity and compassion, and based on the original expertise of the author (Farshchian Studies), at least as a scientific and research proposal to the "Educational Research and Planning Organization" Be considered and followed up. If these shortcomings were raised by a not-so-prominent and irresponsible organization, as well as by a not-so-prominent artist, perhaps it would have been tolerated. However, we are dealing with the most sensitive and fundamental organization responsible for the education of the country and with the most prominent Iranian painter or artist. Undoubtedly, if this research is an example of pathology or scientific and constructive critique, it can be effective and efficient in adopting macro and strategic policies of the Ministry of Education on the subject of this article.

Naskh script is one of the three main scripts in manuscripts transcription beside Kufic and Nasta’liq scripts which its transcription manner is different in countries, especially Iran and Ottoman. We know exactly that the usage of Kufic or Nasta’liq scripts are not more than six or seven centuries. So there are lots of manuscripts in all around the world written by Naskh script. But why? It is a good question. Naskh script is the most legible script among scripts so it has been used during the ages, from past to present, especially for writing the Quran and prayers. It is also used today as the most common script in printing newspapers and books besides The Quran and prayers. Since this script has been one of the most usable scripts for writing, it is necessary for specialist, researchers and codicologists to be able to recognize the Persian style from the Ottoman one, specially the beginners who are on the first steps and need more guides to be able to recognize. It is also essential for calligraphers to know the differences between these two types, so they can choose their favorite style and continue their learning in an especial manner. Knowing the artistic and aesthetics points within the calligraphers of two different civilizations, is also a main part in art history so it is good to complete the different parts of this huge puzzle called “World Art History” .On the other hand, as we know there are lots of manuscripts all around the world which do not have colophons so stylistics recognizing of these two styles is so useful for knowing the place and periods of transcription the manuscripts which do not have colophons or transcription dates in order to make all the indexes become complete. By searching and studying different sources, we understand that Habibollah Fazaeli was the first researcher who talked about the differences between these two styles, Ottoman and Persian Naskh. We can find some articles about Naskh script and Ahmad Neyrizi. Although some researches have been done in this field, no one has done any searches about the differences between Ottoman and Persian Naskh in a way to give audiences some practical clues. Even there is an article about “Persian Naskh in Safavid era” but there is no comparison. So we understand that the subject of this article is new and can help the script fans and teach them something new which is so practical in all levels, not only elementary calligraphers but also higher education researchers who are not calligraphers. In this article, after a short explanation about Naskh script, brief biographies of two calligraphers Ahmad Neyrizi and Mohammad Shoqi Effendi have been expressed. Ahmad Neyrizi was an Iranian calligraphy master in 16th</sup> A.D. but we do not know anything about his birth and death dates. Mohammad Shoqi Effendi was an Ottoman master calligrapher in18th A.D. Two images of each Quran are also given as the examples of each calligraphers' artworks for audiences. The Quran transcribed by Ahmad Neyrizi is kept in Library of Golestan Palace and the Shoqi Effendi’s Quran belongs to one of his posterities’ collection. After studying the Quran transcription style by these two great calligraphers, the main part of this research is to give some keys and determiners for recognizing the Persian and Ottoman Naskh from each other. Keys and determiners have been represented in different tables. In this research, the parts belonged to the features of  Naskh script and also biographies, have been done in library way and by the help of different books in descriptive style and the analysis of the scripts and characteristics of them have been accomplished by the articles’ authors with the help of computer software in order to be exact. The obtained results of these studies which are also presented in different tables in order to be systematic and classified show that Naskh style differs from each other in Ottoman and Iran so calligraphers need to study the determiners given in this research in order to be able to recognize the differences. Although this research gives some useful keys and determiners, beginner specialists need exact and repeatedly visual studies in order to be predominant in this field and major.

For centuries Persian handmade carpet has not only been a commodity but also a significant representative of Persian culture, history, traditions, artistic heritage, and ethnic identity. Additionally, Persian handmade carpet plays a remarkably valuable economic role. While considered an “investable commodity” as well as one of the most prominent non-oil exports, it is also known as a “low-cost and employment-creating” occupation.  Based on this, achieving the best methods and tools for promoting Persian hand-woven carpet, to preserve this ancient skill and national industry along with maintenance and development of its marketing, is of great importance, and this investigation has been carried out for this purpose.  To determine the objective of this investigation, it should be said: for perseverance and persistence of arts an industry which is a source of national export income in addition to being the source of employment of some in Iran, as a result, one should pursue effective market expansion and the increase in customers base and to achieve this, “advertising” undoubtedly plays a dominant role.  Based on this, the objective of this investigation has been ‘the discovery of proper tools and methods of introduction and promotion of Persian handmade carpet’ in accordance to which, other secondary objectives such as ‘discovery of values and desirable characteristics of Persian hand-woven carpet to apply them in the advertising process’ have also been pursued.  The primary question asked by this investigation is to how, using which method and advertising technique could one introduce and further expand the market for Persian hand-woven carpet? And does Persian handmade carpet have notable benefits in this process? This investigation has been carried out using the Survey method to utilize the ideas and perceptions of notable figures in the advertisement and communication filed and the data have been analysed in accordance with the differential sections.  By looking at the answers given by the interviewees, it can be realized that although most of them are familiar with the benefits of Persian handmade carpet, they have had fewer encounters with advertisements of this commodity. Based on this, the under representation of Persian handmade carpet becomes more noticeable and the position holders in manufacturing and marketing must pay more attention to the advertisement.  From the results of these surveys it can be realized that a costumers’ desire to buy Persian hand-woven carpet is high however with machine-made carpets and other manufactured flooring and rugs as competition, fewer customers tend to buy Iranian hand-woven carpet.  In this subject, emphasizing on the advantages of Persian handmade carpet over other rugs and flooring increases customers' tendency to buy Persian handmade carpet.  Interviewees questioned in this survey, have not considered the promotion and presentation of another competitor country’s carpets of any significance in reduction of demand for Persian handmade carpets and in their belief, highlighting the imperfections of carpets manufactured in other countries would not be much of a representative of Persian handmade carpet.  Most of the interviewees believe that using the most effective methods and the most efficient advertising tools could lead to the increase in customers’ tendency to purchase this commodity and based on this, more attention should be given to effective advertising.  In this investigation, it became evident that different advertising platforms do not have equal efficiency in introducing handmade carpet to the consumers.  There is a meaningful link between ‘presenting the advantages of Persian hand-woven carpet and disadvantages of other floorings and rugs’ and also ‘presenting the advantages of Persian hand-woven carpet and disadvantages of carpets manufactured in other countries’ with “customers tendency to buy Persian carpet.”  When deciding the tools and advertising message to introduce Persian handmade carpet, “media coverage ratio”, “punctuality”, “persistence and permanence”, “accessibility and convenience” and “cost” are all determining factors. From all types of advertising media, (print media, broadcast media, electronic media, interactive media, etc.), communication and advertising experts believe broadcast media (Tv, radio, satellite,...) are the most effective in promoting and advertising Persian handmade carpet. Launching trade-fairs and exhibitions are the second most effective in advertising followed by print media (newspaper, magazine, brochure) in third place. Digital advertising, (Social media platforms, sending e-mails,...), outdoor and transit advertising, and other types of advertising handing out samples, are less effective in introducing and Persian handmade carpet.  From remarkable characteristics of Persian handmade carpet which can be used in the advertising process, the vast majority of experts questioned in this investigation, “variety in designs, extremely rich colour combinations, unique patterns, size, and material” are considered the most notable. As a result, it is desirable to focus on these qualities when advertising Persian handmade carpet. Other qualities such as “historic, cultural and artistic significance of Persian handmade carpet”, “recognised commercial brand of Persian hand-woven carpet” and "eco-friendly material used in the manufacturing of Persian handmade carpet” in the next consecutive places can also be considered for advertising.

Terms such as “community Architecture”, “Social Architecture”, “Participatory Architecture” consider to different typologies of participation during design process phases but in these cases, level of participation differs in design process. Much research considers to on theoretical aspects of participation in architectural approaches but more recent examples consider to responsible cases. Many of the ideas of modern community architecture take a glance to the behavioral patterns of the user, wants and needs, he will. So Through proper understanding of needs, wants and will, it is possible to build responsible environment. This is development of Habraken's theory that talks about design with and for people. The main question of this research is what is the difference among participation typologies in contemporary architecture of Islamic countries? As an approach, participatory architecture has not been as a suitable approach for many architects because they believe the user interfere lead the project in wrong way and is a time consuming process. On the other side, some governments make seductive participation for some political aims. When there are issues associated with the use of participatory research methods commonly used categories such as case studies, qualitative, quantitative, content analysis, etc., alone cannot be efficient alone. Among the various theories of participation, less considered to typology of participation in practice and just some of the classical theorists like Arnstein (1969), talked about different levels of participation. In 1986, Wulz in an article, the concept of participation, compared some works of architects with participatory approach. He analyzed works of some postmodern architects such as Michael Graves and Aldo Rossi with some post structuralism architects such as Ralph Erskine, Road Hackney and Christopher Alexander. Wulz in his article refers to some typologies of participation such as interpretative participation, regional, self-decision , etc. but he doesn’t propose clear categories about these. Another group of theorists never classified community architecture approaches so implementations did not provide a group of architectural ideas based on a typology that can be achieved. Hence almost all theories completely theoretical basis and practical examples of the architecture has been less, even some theorist such as Hatch and Sanoff that have a practical view, don’t determine typologies. Thus, despite the participatory architecture, community architecture, and collective architecture theories and variety of sources in these field, there is very little source about typologies of participation in practice. Participatory research method is a new and effective paradigm to use knowledge generated by community behavior. Generally, action research (AR) is used in this research also qualitative research methods. Many of recourses in this field talk about direct participation of user in design process and also many of cases are not outstanding in contemporary architecture literature and so just a seduce participation occurs during design. Some methods used in this kind is questioners, workshops, interview, etc. some cases consider to participation during construction phases of project (especially in developing countries). Assessing different theories and responsible cases of community architecture shows there are seven typologies of participation: 1-social mobilization, 2-questioners participation, 3-consulting design, 4-functional participation, 5-interactive participation, 6-regional participation, 7-interpretive participation. Base on previous , about characteristic of different participatory approaches, community architecture, participatory architecture and social architecture, the relation between approaches and typologies is: In community architectures, the use of beliefs and rituals Symbols is considered effective and engaging people through them is understandable, interactive, interpreting and regional participation are concerned. In participatory architecture because of systematic relationship between user and expert, reviews of the samples show the existence of such information, consultation, functional and interactive participation. Among all the types, functional participation is used more. In social participation, involvement in the process by using social mobilization, information and consulting are done. Different typologies of participation in architectural cases are a wide range of successful methods of participation that if far from previous consideration of typical participation in social mobilization and questioner’s methods. Seven typologies of participation in design process shows different level and condition of participation for user and architect. Some of typologies such as interpretive participation and regional participation consider more to values and costumes and user behaviors and are more indirect. Functional and consulting participation have rational view to participation and let the user take part as it is necessary. Questioner participation and social mobilization, today are named seduce participation (also in some cases may be useful). Today the usage of community architecture theory in contemporary Islamic architecture is more successful than social architecture or participatory design. In case of typology, interpretative and regional participation lead to responsible built environment.