iraj nikseresht

In the seventeenth to the nineteenth century in India, a wide wave began to translate, rewrite, and collect the Arabic and Persian texts of Islamic scholars. Jami'-i-Bahadur Khani is one of the educational encyclopedias subcontinent in the nineteenth century, in the field of arithmetic and geometry and optics and astronomy, gives us the mentality of the dominant scientific view of scientific schools subcontinent. Although in the above-mentioned three centuries, Great Britain is surrounded by India on all scientific and educational institutions but works like Jami'-i-Bahadur Khani that most influenced the ancient science texts and traditions were so serious scientific advances shows that India's scientific growth in this century has passed and the Army. As far as astronomical studies of Jami'-i-Bahadur Khani based on an older version of Ptolemy and Maragheh and Samarkand school is great texts while this book introduces some new theories and discoveries such as the theory of the precession of the Earth by Newton deals or the discovery of the moons of Saturn in the early nineteenth century. Or the topic of optics, he is the school Euclid before that in the nineteenth century in the West, there was no trace of it in new optics. 

This research aims to answer the question, to what extent can a real (objective) description of the world be achieved with quantum physics? In other words, how did the concept of nature change in the subatomic world? It seems that the concept of the word "nature" has changed so much from the stories of the past that all of our relationships with nature must be grounded in new principles and redefined.The situation in the macroscopic world (classical Newtonian physics) is quite clear. But the question is, how is our understanding of nature in the microscopic (subatomic) world? With the invention of quantum physics at the beginning of the 20th century, the situation changed completely. According to the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum physics, which was presented by Niels Bohr and Karl Werner Heisenberg, two of the founders of quantum physics, the natural sciences (physics) do more than describe and explain nature. In fact, the natural sciences are part of the confrontation between nature (object) and ourselves (subject). Therefore, our science is part of the human-nature interaction. We should also talk about the profound effect of technology on the relationship between man and nature.When we in the age of quantum physics talk about the image of nature (object) from the point of view of the exact natural sciences, instead of "the image of nature", the topic of conversation is the image of "our relationship with nature", which describes them and "explains" them in mathematical language.

The subject of automatic fountains or fountains that change their shape without the intervention of an external agent at specific time intervals is one of the subjects mentioned in the books of Muslim scientists in the domain of Al-Hiyal. , (the approximate equivalent of mechanical engineering). The first examples of this type of fountain are given by Banū Mūsā ibn Shākir in the book al-Hiyal. Apparently these designs were independent of Greek heritage and the result of the genius and thought of Banū Mūsā ibn Shākir. After Banū Mūsā, al-Jazarī in the automatic fountains section of his book while criticizing the fountain designs of Bani-Musa provided new examples of this type of fountain. Despite the apparent difference between al-Jazarī's designs and the fountains designed by Banū Mūsā and al-Jazarī's emphasis on not using their methods in fountain design, it seems that he has been largely influenced by the ideas of by Banū Mūsā in this book, together with a brief description of automatic fountains from the two books mentioned, the extent of this effectiveness is examined.

. Astronomers in later periods of Islamic astronomy were more influenced by Avicenna’s natural philosophy, So they used the basics of natural philosophy in astronomical theories. This prompted them to try to replace the Equant model proposed by Ptolemy with new models. Muslim astronomers and philosophers were interested in considering the spheres as material bodies and sought the cause of phenomena in philosophical discussions. But Ptolemy used his models only in explaining the universe in his book, Almagest. And his aim was not to find the cause of the motion of the planets and spheres. Astronomers' philosophical beliefs about the motion of the spheres can be seen in other topics, such as the material of the spheres, their simplicity, and the type of motion they all have. These views are due to their interest in finding the cause of the planets' motion. Ali Qushji lived in the last years of the astronomical period in Islamic civilization. He wanted to save the phenomena instead of finding the reasons for what happened. Because he was distrustful of astronomical theories. This article will address Ghoshchi's astronomical views of cosmology.

In his search for the essence of being, following an aprioristic approach, Razi believed in the five-fold substances of Necessary Being (Creator), rational soul, hyle (matter), absolute time (perpetual duration), and absolute place (vacuum). When explaining the process of creation through the four pre-eternal things alongside God, he justified the role of God’s Will in the process of creation by highlighting the role of the soul’s ignorance in its tendency for matter. He also demonstrated that the world was created at God’s will and not by nature. In his view, it is only Man who can liberate the soul from the pains and calamities of matter through the mediation of the intellect and lead it towards happiness and salvation. However, the difference is that the soul will not have any desire for matter. Razi believed in the possibility of corruption and change in bodies and, as a result, in the world of creation, even if the bodies are of an earthly or heavenly nature. He maintained that bodies consist of hyle and vacuum and emphasized that substances enjoy volume and are pre-eternal. Accordingly, he agreed that particles are infinite in number and composite in nature and disagreed with creation out of nothing. In his view, the qualities of four-fold elements and heavenly spheres, such as lightness and heaviness, brightness and darkness, and softness and hardness, depend on the mass and number of the vacuum-like components that penetrated the substances of hyle. At the same time, Razi acknowledged the centrality and immobility of the Earth and believed that heaven and, following it, the Sun, and other stars have a spinning motion through the balance of the components of the hyle and the vacuum within them. He considered the world to have been originated and agreed with the possibility of existence of other worlds. Finally, Razi explained vacuum and plenum in the mould of the concept of an infinite universal place which is independent of the world and also introduced beyond this place as space.

The main purpose of this paper is to investigate the epistemological problems of learning the concepts of empirical sciences by students. For this purpose, the notion of epistemological obstacles and the psychoanalysis of objective knowledge method presented by Gaston Bachelor, was used. The psychoanalysis of objective knowledge method has three main aspects of psychoanalytic, epistemological, and historical. The psychoanalysis of objective knowledge, with regards to these aspects, addresses the factors and obstacles that have hampered the development and advancement of science. In addition to the determinative role played in scientific researches, epistemological obstacles also have important educational implications in the field of empirical science education. In this article, we will focus on the major educational implications of epistemological obstacles in the teaching of empirical sciences, and we propose a new approach to science education. The proposed approach emphasizes the use of epistemological errors in students to identify and eliminate learning obstacles. The results of the research indicate that application of the consequences of epistemological obstacles to science education can help to improve the quality of teaching science by identifying and eliminating learning obstacles from different aspects.

Newton’s world consists of atoms, which cause natural phenomena with their movement through vacuum. Force is another important element of Newton’s world. Newton denies the idea that gravity is an essential property of matter. This indicates his adherence to the traditional conception of substance. Moreover, it provides a reason for him to believe in divine omnipresence. Other components of Newton’s ontology are space and time. He believes in absolute space and time and that it is God who sustains space and time, with his omnipresence. Every being, including God, exists in space and time. And since absolute space and time are God’s frame of action, contemplating about nature is a way to know God. Newton believes that his philosophy rejects material philosophy and proves an intelligent Creator and his continual action in the world. The aim of this article is to present a comprehensive image of Newton’s ontology, based on an investigation into his ideas about the material world, space, time and God.

Muhammad b. Zakariyā Rāzī is one of the eminent figures in history of science during Islamic period, who has been recognized in the works of modern researchers as possessing anti-Aristotelian attitude and an experimental method in such sciences as medicine and alchemy. Someother researchers have praised Rāzī’s scientific method and considered him as equal to the contemporary scientists. However, the issue less dealt with is the relation between his intellectual approach and experimental inclination; in other words, how the “intellect” and “experiment” have been combined in such a person as Rāzī and what the relation between the two is like. Upon a comprehensive study of Rāzī’s views on “intellect” and “experiment”, the present research has concluded that Rāzī’s intellectual difference and his distinguished scientific method as compared to other scientists of his time, especially the peripatetic philosophers originates from his different definition of human intellect and determining its status in human life. In other words, Rāzī’s reliance on experiment is not only consistent with his intellectual inclination, but this idea of his is rooted in his emphasis on the role of intellect and all humans’ equal share in it. The components of his intellectual world are also explainable in consideration of his definition of intellect, a definition that forms thenature of his scientific worldview.

In the nineteenth century Iran, with the spread of modernization, ancient science texts were abandoned and Western translated texts were used for teaching. In the same period in India, Persian and Arabic texts were used by Iranian scholars as reference books and textbooks. In this paper, we want to answer the two basic questions: first, why did Indian Muslims, unlike Iran, despite the colonial presence of Britain and the spread of new science and technology in this country, still adhere to their old Persian and Arabic texts, and secondly, why did they attention more to the geometric and mathematical aspects of the texts than to the intellectual and philosophical issues. There are several different theories, such as: save the phenomena, scientific disability, management approach in science, cognitive structures.

Gaston Bachelard (1884-1962) a développé ses œuvres sur deux versants: l’un, épistémologique et l’autre, poétique. En Iran, l’épistémologie de Bachelard est moins connue que ses réflexions sur l’imagination poétique. Cet article a pour objectif de s’interroger sur la tradition française de philosophie et d’épistémologie et particulièrement l’épistémologie bachelardienne et sa place dans la philosophie et l’épistémologie françaises; notre réflexion se construira sur quatre axes essentiels: «Philosophie et épistémologie bachelardienne», «Rupture épistémologique et Révolution scientifique», «La psychologie de l’esprit scientifique et le caractère social de la science moderne» et enfin, «Le matérialisme rationnel et le matérialisme naturel».

Scientific policy-makings and type of relations of rulers with each other are effective in development and transfer of knowledge and culture. Ottoman government usually was in peace with Timurid. This led to scientific and cultural relationships between both territories ruled by these two emperorships. This paper is focused on the role of Mullā Alī Qūshjī in transferring knowledge of astronomy and mathematics from Samarqand School to Ottoman schools. It will be shown that how Qūshjī, after collapsing school and Samarqand observatory after the death of its founder, i.e. Ulugh Beg, transferred a huge volume of scientific information to Ottoman country, up to the pint that its impacts were seen even at early of era of European scientific revolution. Qūshjī’s effectiveness is not only noticeable in transferring knowledge of mathematics and astronomy, but also in forming new scientific schools in Ottoman territory. Also, we will see that how collapsing a scientific school causes development of new scientific schools in another territory.

One of the topics being dealt by the scholars of Elm ul-Heyl (the equivalence approximated to Mechanical Engineering) is the designing of the fountains being changed in form by defined intervals. Three types of these fountains next to a fountain without change of form have been proposed in the book “Al-Torogh ulSanniyah fi Al-Alat Al-Rouhanyah” written by Taqioddin Mohammad Ibn M’aroof known as Rased (993 AH/ 1585 AD) who was a great scientist in 10th century AH and astronomer of the Istanbul Observatory. Only a volume form this book has been remained which has been printed as a facsimile print. Reconstructing the three dimensional form of the fountains with software 3D MAX, the paper explains the points related to them. In the appendix of the paper, the correction and translation of the section related to the fountains from Taqioddin’s book are presented to be used by the researchers and interested people.

The present article discusses and criticizes the chapter two of Bahādurkkhānī’s Jāmī‘ on optics. The basic question is the extent to which this book is influenced by old book of optics. The main hypothesis is that despite all scientific advances in new optics, Bahādurkkhānī’s Jāmī‘ still relies on optics of ancient Greece and his Islamic era and does not step beyond Euclidean mathematics. According to his references to geometric relationships and the last astronomical discoveries we can say that Bahādurkkhānī probably was aware of the latest advances in new geometric optics. As a result, optics and mathematics had a strong geometric aspect in the India of 19th century without deep philosophical aspects.