javad parsaei

The existence of illusions in perceptual perceptions have many philosophical challenges; so, it is important to study the views and solutions of Muslim philosophers in this issue. The information in this article has been collected using a library method and analyzed by using a rational method in such a way that firstly, the quiddity of sensual knowledge and the process of its emergence in the field of body and soul are discussed, then the challenges arising from the issue of perceptual illusion have been explained, and then the way Muslim sages face the issue of perceptual illusion and its challenges are discussed. It has been concluded by analyzing the views of Muslim sages that the issues of the sages’ confrontation regarding perceptual illusion are: 1- Non-attribution of perceptual perception to mistake (Arabic: خطا, khaṭā) and correctness (Arabic: صواب, ṣawāb, right) 2- The effect of the faculty of estimation and estimated on perceptual illusion 3- Discovery and correction of perceptual illusion through intellectual faculty. It is clear according to the author by analyzing and separating the epistemological and ontological aspects of perceptual perceptions that perceptual perceptions can be true and false in the true sense and their epistemological validity is based on thought and reasoning; hence perceptual perceptions and sensible propositions are removed from the axioms and certainties.

Ethos are considered as qualities of the soul innate qualities. Since man's behavior and actions are due to of his ethos, and human’s ethics have a great influence on his felicity and perfection, so it is important to discuss about the appearance of ethos. In this article, firstly, explains what of ethos and its varieties and then have been explained the emergence of ethos's quality according to the viewpoint of Avicenna and Mulla Sadra. According to Avicenna's view, some kinds of ethics are immaterial and some material, but from the point of Mulla Sadra's view, all kinds of ethics are divested of body and material. According to the viewpoint of both scholar, physical affairs such as temperament, body nature, and repetition of action have an effect on the emergence of ethos. However, the different principles that these two philosophers have concerning the materiality and abstractedness of animal faculties and hence the varieties of disposition, has caused their disagreement on the quality of the appearance of disposition.. In the perspective of physicalism, ethos has been reduced to brain functions, and there is no immaterial explanation for the ethos.