complexity

Despite research studies regarding collaborative writing (CW), the effect of using L1 as the medium of collaboration has been underexplored in computer-mediated L2 CW. This study investigated the effect of the language that the learners employed for collaboration (L1 vs. L2) on their L2 texts and examined whether learners participating in online CW using Google Docs produced better subsequent individual L2 texts. Participants consisted of 45 Iranian upper-intermediate English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) male and female learners, with Farsi as their mother tongue and their ages ranging from 19 to 24. They were divided into three groups (two experimental groups and one control group). The essays were analyzed in terms of complexity, accuracy, fluency (CAF), and overall quality of the texts to see which language (L1 or L2) led to superior L2 texts. The researchers employed Mann-Whitney U, Kruskal-Wallis, and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to analyze the test data. The results showed that collaboratively written L2 texts were superior in terms of accuracy and overall quality compared to those generated by the control group. Furthermore, the L1 group performed better regarding complexity, whereas the L2 interaction group was superior in terms of fluency and overall quality of the texts. Based on the findings, the way collaboration is done may play a more important role than the language utilized for collaboration. The findings promise implications for the use of collaborative-based processes to contribute to EFL learners’ quality writing.

Dictation is a method in which learners receive speaking input which can foster their writing skill, so this quasi - experimental study attempts to investigate the role of classroom dictation activity as a kind of dicto-gloss on improving accuracy and complexity of written performance between Iranian male and female EFL learners. For this aim, 40 male and female learners were chosen out of 59 students. Then, by administrating a Preliminary English Test (PET) 40 homogeneous participants were selected as final sample of this study. The first language of the learners was Azerbaijani Turkish and they were intermediate-level learners. Then, they were randomly divided into two intact groups, one consisting of 20 male students and the other one 20 female students. Before manipulating treatment, the participants took part in the pretest to check their accuracy and complexity of their written performance. After 10 sessions, they took part in the post-test. The data collected in this study were analyzed through independent samples t-test. Both groups in the post test had higher scores in accuracy and complexity than the pre-test. However, the findings revealed that female group significantly outperformed the male group on the post test, in terms of both their accuracy and complexity of written performance. In conclusion, it could be stated that classroom dictation activity as a kind of dictogloss can be effective method that can enhance Iranian EFL learners’ accuracy and complexity of writing. The results of the study would be significant for EFL/ESL teachers, English language institutes, and teachers.

Cognitive-based studies on writing skills are challenging. In the current study, researchers investigated the impact of three pre-task conditions (brainstorming, FonF, and metacognitive strategy instruction) and the cognitive process, including planning, translating, and revising components, and writing performance (fluency, complexity, or accuracy) on the participants’ writings production. The study employed a convergent mixed methods design. One hundred and fifty tertiary learners in three intact classes majoring in the English Language at IAU, Islamshahr Branch, participated in the study. The study lasted four months (16 90-minute sessions), held once a week. Each group experienced a specific type of pre-task: brainstorming, metacognitive strategy instruction, or FonF activities. The researchers used writing pretest and posttest, think-aloud protocol, and semi-structured interview to collect the data. MANOVA and thematic analysis were employed to analyze the data. The results demonstrated that the pre-task conditions have a statistically significant impact on the fluency, complexity, and accuracy of the participants’ writings. The study also showed that the pre-task conditions statistically impact the planning, translating, and revising of Iranian EFL learners’ written production. Implications of the study are discussed.

This study investigated the effectiveness of two different scopes of corrective feedback on enhancing the complexity, accuracy, and fluency of L2 written productions among 150 intermediate EFL learners participating in intact online courses. The corrective feedback scope includes highly focused and comprehensive feedback delivered via digital platforms in synchronous and asynchronous formats. Participants were divided into five groups: synchronous highly focused feedback, synchronous comprehensive feedback, asynchronous highly focused feedback, asynchronous comprehensive feedback, and a control group receiving corrective feedback via traditional methods, characterized by the indiscriminate identification and marking of all errors. Results across the feedback groups regarding their impact on complexity, accuracy, and fluency in EFL learners' written productions indicated a significant effect on accuracy, while complexity and fluency showed no significant differences based on feedback scope and delivery modality. The results of this study have several important implications for educators, material developers, and policymakers in the field of language education. For teachers, adopting synchronous feedback strategies could significantly enhance the accuracy and complexity of students' written work.

This study examined the impacts of providing regulatory focus feedback (RFF) in the forms of prevention and promotion as well as reference of comparison feedback (RCF) in the forms of normative and self-referential on EFL learners’ speaking complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) in online speaking courses. For this purpose, 100 intermediate EFL learners in a language institute were randomly assigned into four experimental groups and one control group (N=20). Language learners were required to respond to two speaking tasks from the IELTS exam before and after receiving 16 sessions of the intervention. The data were subjected to ANCOVA analysis and paired samples comparisons. The results showed that the participants’ speaking performance was better in all four experimental groups compared to the control group. Moreover, the superiority of self-referential feedback in improving the participants’ oral production ability over normative feedback was demonstrated. Prevention-focused feedback was shown to be influential in improving accuracy. Finally, practical implications for how EFL teachers can enhance language learners’ oral production ability are discussed.

Evaluating the oral abilities of foreign language learners through online assessments attitudes a significant challenge for both teachers and students. Conducting skill evaluations in person, through direct interaction between the examiner and the learner, enables more authentic communication. However, shifting to a digital format and incorporating technological tools may cause discomfort among students and take away the friendly atmosphere of the assessment.This study aimed to investigate the impact of online assessment on the speaking complexity, accuracy, and fluency of intermediate English as a foreign language (EFL) learners. Initially, 50 learners took the Oxford Placement Test, with only 44 scoring between 50 and 60, placing them at level B1. These students were then divided into an experimental group and a control group. The Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) was administered as a pretest and posttest for both groups, alongside a speaking pretest to assess complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) scores. The experimental group underwent online assessment (OA) via the Adobe Connect platform, while the control group engaged in book exercises without any specific treatment. Following the intervention, both groups took a speaking posttest (TOEIC). Data analysis involved Pearson Correlation Coefficient, kurtosis, skewness, descriptive statistics, and sample t-tests. The findings revealed that online assessment significantly improved participants' speaking accuracy and fluency, although it did not have a significant impact on speaking complexity.

It has been suggested that scaffolding can be an effective way to support learners in writing. Research has also indicated that teacher feedback is essential in improving the quality of FL writing. Accordingly, the present quasi-experimental study aimed to explore the differential effects of teacher mediation and learner scaffolding on EFL learners’ writing complexity, accuracy, and fluency in the Google Docs environment. A convenience sample of 97 EFL learners participated, with proficiency levels determined using the DIALANG test. The participants were assigned to two experimental and one control group. The data were collected from a timed writing task employed as the pre and post-test to measure the writing achievement of the EFL participants using Fathi and Rahimi’s (2022) list of measures and a semi-structured interview. Descriptive and inferential statistics were performed, including comparing the means of pre and post-tests of the three groups in terms of the three writing indicators by MANCOVA and Pearson correlation analysis. As the results revealed, the progress of writing indicators has become statistically significant only in the second experimental group. In contrast, the first experimental group showed progress that was not statistically significant. Furthermore, a significant positive relationship was found between complexity components, accuracy, and fluency, and accuracy exhibited the most significant enhancement. In addition, the analysis of the interview revealed learners’ perceived value of scaffolding strategies, especially by peers, and a positive attitude towards the implications of Google Docs in their success in writing performance.

This study examined how Iranian intermediate EFL learners' writing complexity, accuracy, and fluency were affected by collaborative online writing using Google Docs. The language proficiency of 75 EFL learners was gauged based on their performance on the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT). They were intermediate male and female EFL learners studying English at three language institutes in Shahrekord. Participants were chosen through convenient sampling. The participants were then split into two groups at random: a Google Docs group, and a control group. Afterwards, learners in the control and experimental groups were given a cause-and-effect prompt as a pre-test, and their writing complexity, accuracy, and fluency were assessed using CAF measures. Following the pre-test, the participants in the experimental groups began a six-week training period in the collaborative environments of Google Docs. The same instructional materials and procedures were presented to the control group, but in a non-collaborative, face-to-face setting. Similar to the writing pre-test, a writing post-test was given to both groups at the end of the intervention, and the writings were graded. In comparison to the conventional methodology, the results obtained showed that the instructional method (Google Docs) is advantageous and effective in enhancing writing skills. The main outcome of this research is that the ease and viability of teaching and learning writing are significantly and meaningfully influenced by giving learners control over their learning through Google Docs.

This study aimed to investigate the microgenetic development of participants in terms of complexity, accuracy, and fluency in writing. Twenty eight male and thirty two female participants at an intermediate level of proficiency were selected. The final sample consisted of students who achieved intermediate band scores. These selected participants underwent 10 teaching and testing sessions. They chose two out of three suggested topics and wrote two compositions to assess their writing development. Writing performance was evaluated in the first and tenth sessions for fluency, accuracy, and complexity. Repeated measures MANOVA and post-hoc comparison tests were used to explore writing development over time. The results highlighted students' progress in writing over time. The multivariate analysis of variance showed significant differences in mean scores for poor, average, and high language learners across the sections of complexity, accuracy, and fluency. The implications of these findings are significant for both educators and curriculum developers and will be discussed.

Though applied linguistics has observed a rise in language acquisition investigations within the complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) paradigm, the majority of research endeavors have been centered on the development of learners' first language (L1) or second language (L2). Limited research exists on multilinguals’ L3 acquisition/development, with even fewer studies considering the development of learners’ speaking skill in L2, and L3. The present study aimed to address these gaps by adopting a CDST approach to analyze the development of fluency, accuracy, and complexity in L2 (English) and L3 (French) speaking skills among five undergraduate Iranian EFL junior students of Translation Studies at Jahrom University over one academic year. The students were at an intermediate level in English language and their French language proficiency was at the beginner level. The participants’ speaking ability in both languages was closely examined and analyzed regarding their development of fluency, accuracy, and complexity within a quantitative design. Findings depicted that the aspects were developed in non-linear, chaotic, and emergent patterns in multilingual learners’ L2 and L3 speaking skill. Moreover, the findings indicated that these elements in multilingual learners' speaking were interconnected and influenced each other over a period of time. The discoveries have some significant implications for L2 and L3 language teaching, such as creating flexible learning and teaching environments, fostering emergent behavior in language classrooms, encouraging learners to have a self-organizing and autonomous role in language learning, having sensitivity to the diverse needs of learners, and fostering a collaborative learning environment.

Dynamic assessment offers a holistic approach to evaluation by embedding assessment within instruction. Despite evidence suggesting the effectiveness of DA in language classrooms, there remains a reluctance among teachers to adopt DA practices. This reluctance stems from a lack of understanding of how DA models impact specific learning outcomes, particularly in speaking skills. One main contributing factor is the dominance of quantitative DA studies, which do not contextualize the differences between DA models. With an inductive thematic analysis design, this study explored the perceived effects of interactionist and interventionist DA models on speaking accuracy, fluency, and complexity among Iranian EFL students. Thirty undergraduate intermediate EFL learners from Islamic Azad University, North Tehran Branch, were recruited through purposive sampling. Each participant had received one hundred hours of speaking lessons with one of the DA models embedded before participating in a semi-structured interview. The analysis of participants' perceptions and reflections revealed that both DA models were well-received for improving speaking skills but had different effects on subskills. Learners perceived the interactionist model as an effective teaching method that improved their speaking accuracy and complexity but reduced fluency, while the interventionist model favored fluency at the expense of grammatical accuracy and complexity.

There is abundant evidence in task-based research suggesting that modifying task design, implementation, and complexity brings about variant effects on language learners’ attention division and performance. The present study was aimed at exploring how modifying task implementation and task complexity variables affects learners’ focus of attention and oral discourse. Task implementation was manipulated along the variable of repetition and task complexity was modified in terms of tense and availability of contextual support (i.e., performing in Here/Now vs. There/Then). To accomplish this objective, task performances of 60 English as foreign language learners were elicited under the following conditions: doing a narrative task once in Here/Now; doing a narrative task twice in Here/Now; doing a narrative task once in There/Then; and doing a narrative task twice in There/Then. The findings revealed that whereas repeating the task in Here/Now enhanced fluency and complexity, repeating the same task in There/Then triggered better performance in all dimensions. The findings may bear implications for researchers and language educators which are presented in connection with pertinent theoretical and practical issues.

This study examined how Iranian intermediate EFL learners' writing complexity, accuracy, and fluency were affected by collaborative online writing using Wikis. The language proficiency of 75 EFL learners was gauged based on their performance on the Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT). They were intermediate male and female EFL learners studying English at three language institutes in Shahrekord, Iran. The participants were then split into two groups at random: a Wiki group (WG), and a control group (CG). Afterwards, learners in the control and experimental group were given a cause-and-effect prompt as a pre-test, and their writing complexity, accuracy, and fluency were assessed using CAF measures. Following the pre-test, the participants in the experimental group began a six-week training period in the collaborative environment of Wiki. The same instructional materials and procedures were presented to the control group, but in a non-collaborative, face-to-face setting. Similar to the writing pre-test, a writing post-test was given to both groups at the end of the intervention, and the writings were graded. In comparison to the conventional methodology, the results obtained revealed that the instructional method via Wiki was advantageous and effective in enhancing writing skills. This result is consistent with theories supporting the use of technology-based approaches in EFL writing settings. The main outcome of this research is that the ease and viability of teaching and learning writing are significantly and meaningfully influenced by giving learners control over their learning through Wiki.

Findings on recast as feedback on learners’ erroneous forms tend to be less than conclusive or confirmatory. Also, the conventional formulations in literature give partial accounts of recasting as an effective methodological practice. The present study proposes recast enriched by negotiation (REN) on the learners’ part as an alternative. For investigating the hypothetical effect, three all-female groups were concentrated on, namely explicit feedback, recast and REN. Summary writing task as post-test concentrated on the learners’ accuracy in terms of error-free T units, and complexity regarding word per sentence ratio as well as lexical density. One-way ANOVA for three independent samples and post hoc analyses revealed that accuracy and word per sentence ratio did not vary significantly; however, lexical density improved as a result of REN. Findings and implications of the study are discussed in the light of methodological potentials and literature.

Exploring the effects of task planning as an implementational variable on second language (L2) performance has witnessed a noticeable growth over the past years (Ellis, 2005a; Skehan, 2014b). Building on this bulk of research, this study aimed at investigating the effects of three task planning conditions, i.e., pre-task planning (PTP), online planning (OLP), and the combination of pre-task and online planning (PTP+OLP), on young learners’ oral complexity, accuracy, and fluency. The participants were 60 EFL learners aged between 10 and 12 who were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions in the study, including the no planning (NP) condition (n = 15 in each group). The participants were asked to watch a short silent video and narrate its story. The results of the statistical analyses indicate that while PTP increases fluency, OLP and OLP+PTP improve both accuracy and syntactic complexity. The findings suggest that teachers of young L2 learners should utilize the promising potentials of different task planning conditions to channel learners’ language production toward more fluent, accurate, and complex production.

In recent decades, many second language acquisition (SLA) researchers have identified the leading role of organizing sequentially cognitive tasks in Task-Based Language Teaching. Presenting types of different task sequence has become increasingly crucial for syllabus designers. This investigation examines the theoretical basis of task sequencing, which claims that pedagogical tasks should be developed and ordered cognitively from easy to complex. The current study aims to compare the performance of English learners in sequenced and isolated familiar tasks. Sixty EFL learners studying at the intermediate level in two private language institutes participated in this research. They were randomly selected as one experimental and one control group, each comprising 30 subjects. Before starting treatment, all the participants took a listening comprehension test as a pretest. The treatment took place over one semester, during which the subjects performed simple-complex familiar sequenced tasks while the control group received familiar randomized tasks. After treatment, the posttest of listening comprehension, which contained two complex task features, i.e., - Here-and-Now and - Planning time, was employed. The independent-samples t-test showed that the experimental group who received simple-complex sequenced tasks outperformed the control group in listening to complex tasks. The findings supported the employment of simple-complex sequencing tasks to foster listening task complexity performance.

Research on motivation in second language (L2) learning has progressed tremendously over the last several decades. Within the recent trend to investigate the socially situated context of motivation and the role of social processes in shaping individual L2 motivation, Sociocultural Theory (SCT) and Complexity / Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST) stand out in their contributions. Although researchers have attempted to combine SCT and CDST, there is an ongoing debate in the field of Applied Linguistics regarding the general compatibility of these two traditions. This article consists of a critical literature and theoretical review concerning how SCT, focusing on Activity Theory (AT), and CDST, focusing on the L2 Motivational Self System, address L2 motivation. We argue that SCT and CDST appear to be compatible superficially, since both portray L2 motivation as dynamic, complex, and arising through interactions between individuals and their environments. However, through a more in-depth examination, fundamental differences emerge not only in the context of L2 motivation, but also in the guiding theoretical principles of each research tradition. Ultimately, and arguing from an SCT perspective, we offer a critique of CDST and posit that these theories are not commensurable in their view of L2 motivation or in general.

Writing by which students can be assessed plays an important function in the education process. Hence, investigating the impact of graphic organizer strategy on improving Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ writing complexity was the main goal of this study. Forty female intermediate EFL learners were selected as the participants of the study based on convenience sampling and the results of the Preliminary English Test. After that, they were randomly assigned to two experimental and control groups. To assess the initial writing complexity of the participants, both groups were given a pre-test prior to the treatment. After employing traditional method in the control group and the graphic organizer strategies in the experimental group, both groups received a post-test to examine the effect of the treatment. The design of the present research was quasi-experimental. To analyze the obtained data, the researchers conducted an independent samples t-test, and to examine the progression in the experimental group, a paired samples t- test was employed. The findings of the study indicated that graphic organizer strategies improved the learners’ writing complexity. The results have some implications for EFL/ESL teachers, students, test and materials developers, and syllabus designers.

There is ample research evidence indicating that task implementation options and design features differentially affect the linguistic quality of second language (L2) oral output. The overarching aim of the current research was to add to the available body of research findings by investigating what effects the combination of two task implementation options, namely pre-task planning and post-task transcription, exerts on L2 learners’ focus on form. The study involved sixty Iranian L2 learners who were presented with a picture story to be narrated under one of the following four conditions: pre-task planning (PTP), post-task transcription (PTT), both pre-task planning and post-task transcription (PTP/PTT), and control. Findings showed that while pre-task planning increased fluency and complexity, the anticipation of post-task transcription enhanced focus on form as indicated by more accurate performance. More importantly, pre-task planning along with the foreknowledge of post-task transcription of performance made for an exponential increase in accuracy, a gain which was achieved to the detriment of complexity. The outcomes are of pedagogical significance in that they lend support to the efficacy of using pre-task planning opportunity along with the anticipation of post-task transcription to elicit the highest accuracy level while learners are primarily concerned with conveying meaning.